Einfluß von Prüffrequenz und Salzgehalt des Korrosionsmediums auf die Korrosionsermüdung von Stählen bei betriebsähnlichen Lastabläufen

Influence of test frequency and NaCl-concentration on the fatigue life of steels under a realistic load sequence Because of the size and fatigue life of offshore structures the corrosion fatigue behaviour of those structures cannot be determined under service conditions. Also for the relevant corrosion fatigue tests in the laboratory using welded joints a compromise has to be found to reduce testing time to an economic justifiable amount. This compromise may be a higher stress used in the test, a higher test frequency or a higher concentration of NaCl in the seawater. The influence of test frequency and NaCl concentration on the fatigue life of fillet welded V-shaped specimens made from Fe E 355 KT was determined in artifical seawater and under a realistic load sequence. The fatigue life was separated into the crack initiation phase and the crack propagation phase as well. Mean frequencies of 0.2 Hz, 1.0 Hz and 10 Hz did not affect the fatigue life of welded joints until crack initiation, while low test frequencies of 0.2 Hz and 1.0 Hz accelerated the crack propagation. Higher NaCl-concentration of the seawater, however, had no effect on the fatigue life in both phases.     

Untersuchungen zur Rißkorrosion hochfester Baustähle in Meerwasser

Studies of stress corrosion of high-strength structural steels exposed to seawater Seawater is liable to cause stress corrosion cracking. The risk of cracking may increase as the strength of the steel rises. The report describes the results of a number of test series with welded highstrength structural steels. Long-time exposure tests were performed in natural seawater of the North Sea near Helgoland. In constant deflection tests the influence of the maximum hardness in the heat affected zone on the corrosion behaviour and the effect of chromium as an alloying element were investigated. The potential risk attributable to welded joints containing undiscovered cracks was determined by fracture mechanics tests. Proof was given that under static stress conditions, flawless welded joints on high-strength structural steels up to S890Q grade are not susceptible to hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking. Maximum hardness of 400 HV in the heat affected zone also do not have a negative effect on steels containing up to 1% chromium. Steels with more than 1.5% chromium are endangered if the maximum hardness exceeds values of 350 HV. A susceptibility to stress corrosion under slow strain and creep conditions can be excluded from the potential of free corrosion up to the potential of cathodic protection with zinc. High-strength tensile structural steels do not differ in this regard. Limitations on the use of high-strength structural steels in the submerged area of offshore structures are shown by the fracture mechanics tests with welded joints. The results of the tests show that under free corrosion conditions in seawater high-strength steels up to S500Q do not react more sensitively in terms of corrosion crack growth than the proven steel grade S355N. The choice of steel grade may therefore be guided by other criteria such as the fracture mechanics or fatigue characteristics and processing behaviour.     

X80管线钢焊接热模拟热影响区疲劳裂纹扩展行为的分析及预测

通过焊接热模拟方法对X80双相管线钢不同焊接热影响区疲劳裂纹扩展行为进行了研究,并分析实际焊接试样与焊接热模拟试样的热影响区疲劳裂纹扩展行为的差异,讨论了焊接热模拟技术应用于疲劳裂纹扩展寿命预测的可行性。结果表明,当裂纹在粗晶热影响区(CGHAZ)和临界热影响区(ICHAZ)上扩展时,由实际焊接试样与焊接热模拟试样热影响区所测得的疲劳裂纹扩展速率曲线(da/dN-DK曲线)存在明显差异,其原因与显微组织变化引起的裂纹扩展阻力大小不同有关。因此,建议采用实际焊接试样完整的热影响区所测得的da/dN-DK曲线来评估疲劳裂纹扩展寿命。     

Fatigue properties of ferrite/bainite dual-phase X80 pipeline steel welded joints

Fatigue properties are important parameters for the safety design and security evaluation of pipelines. In this work, fatigue life and fatigue crack propagation of full-thickness X80 pipeline steel joints compared with the base metal (BM) was investigated. Full-thickness BM specimens showed superior fatigue life compared with that of welded joints. The fatigue crack initiation of full-thickness X80 welded joint specimens occurred at the outside weld toe and then grew inward until a fracture was formed. During fatigue crack growth in the heat-affected zone (HAZ), crack growth rate linearly increased with increased ΔK in each HAZ subregion. However, the change rate of fatigue crack growth rate (da/dN) differed among HAZ subregions. This difference was related to the variation in crack path and fracture mode because of the possible microstructural sensitivity of fatigue crack propagation behaviour.     

Integrated fracture mechanics approach to analyse fatigue behaviour of welded joints

Abstract

Current fracture mechanics methods for fatigue assessment, including those that consider thresholds for crack propagation, are based on long crack behaviour. The present work is concerned with an attempt to predict the fatigue strength of welded joints using a fracture mechanics approach that takes into account the fatigue behaviour of short cracks. The methodology estimates the fatigue crack propagation rate as a function of the difference between the applied driving force and the material threshold for crack propagation, which is a function of crack length. The fatigue strength of butt welded specimens stressed transversely was analysed. Experimental results from the literature were used for comparison. Estimations are obtained by using only the fatigue limit and the fatigue propagation threshold for long cracks, and the applied stress distribution along the crack path obtained from simple finite element models. The influence of plate thickness, initial crack length, and reinforcement angle on fatigue strength of butt welded joints was analysed. Results show good agreement with experimental trends.     

Microstructure and creep strength of welds in advanced ferritic power plant steels

Abstract

The microstructure and creep strength of simulated heat affected zone (HAZ) specimens and welded joints have been investigated for advanced 9-12%Cr steels in order to understand the mechanisms responsible for Type IV cracks and to improve the creep strength of welded joints at high temperature. The creep and creep rupture tests were carried out at 650° C (923 K) for up to about 10⁴ h. The creep crack growth tests were also carried out for welded joints, base metal and simulated HAZ specimens using the CT specimens. The creep rupture time of simulated HAZ specimens has its minimum after heating to A_C3 temperature, which produces fine-grained martensitic microstructure. Decreasing the width of HAZ by means of electron beam (EB) welding is effective for the extension of creep life but the brittle Type IV fracture appears even in the EB welded joints at low stress and long time conditions. Most of the welded joint specimens were fractured in fine-grained HAZ and resulted in shorter creep life than those of base metals as a result of the formation of creep voids and cracks. It should also be noted that in the fine-grained zone, the recovery of martensitic microstructure during creep is inhomogeneous as shown by the formation of coarse subgrains in the region of fine subgrains. Using a specially designed FEM code for Type IV crack growth behaviour, the vacancy diffusion under multi-axial stress conditions of welded joints in HAZ is analysed. The effect of creep ductility and void formation ahead of the crack tip on creep crack growth rate is successfully simulated.     

Computer-aided experiment on arc welding

Fatigue properties of cast aluminium welded joints by friction stir welding (FSW) and MIG welding were investigated, comparing with that of the base plate. Fatigue crack propagation tests for the da/dN ? ΔK relation and bending fatigue tests for the S–N relation were carried out. Fatigue cracks in both FSW and MIG specimens were accelerated, when the fatigue crack tip reached the stir zone or the weld metal. This behaviour was discussed based on the crack closure induced by the crack surface roughness and the residual stress. In the S–N properties, the influence of specimen surface finishing on fatigue life was also examined. Fatigue lives of the FSW and MIG specimens in the ‘as weld’ condition were in the range of the largely scattered base plate fatigue lives, in spite of the different fatigue crack initiation sites in each specimen such as the porosity in the base plate, the tool mark bottom in the FSW and the weld toe in the MIG. The FSW specimens with the polished surface showed the particular improvement in fatigue strength for finite fatigue life.     

结合S-N曲线和断裂力学的焊接结构疲劳寿命分析

针对焊接结构的疲劳裂纹演化过程,将焊接结构的疲劳寿命定义为裂纹萌生寿命N_i和裂纹扩展寿命N_p之和,提出一种结合S-N曲线和断裂力学理论的疲劳寿命分析方法.采用等效结构应力法和99%下限主S-N曲线计算焊接结构的裂纹萌生寿命,并将这一阶段结束时的裂纹看作为半椭圆表面裂纹.采用Paris裂纹扩展模型和半椭圆表面裂纹应力强度因子ΔK计算裂纹扩展寿命N_p.参照某起重机走行梁的疲劳试验结果进行对比和验证研究.结果表明,等效结构应力可以较好地表征复杂焊接结构的裂纹萌生特性,结合S-N曲线和断裂力学的疲劳寿命计算结果与试验结果具有较好的一致性.     

Fatigue lives of friction stir spot welds in aluminum 6061-T6 sheets

The fatigue lives of friction stir spot welds in aluminum 6061-T6 lap-shear specimens under cyclic loading conditions are investigated in this paper. The paths of fatigue cracks near friction stir spot welds in lap-shear specimens are first examined. The experimental observations suggest that under cyclic loading conditions, the fatigue crack is initiated near the possible original notch tip in the stir zone and propagates along the circumference of the nugget, then through the sheet thickness and finally grows in the width direction to cause final fracture. A fatigue crack growth model based on the Paris law for crack propagation and the local stress intensity factors for kinked cracks is then adopted to predict the fatigue lives of friction stir spot welds. The global and local stress intensity factors are used to estimate the local stress intensity factors of kinked cracks with experimentally determined kink angles. The results indicate that the fatigue life predictions based on the Paris law and the local stress intensity factors as functions of the kink length agree well with the experimental results.     

Combine S-N curve and fracture mechanics for fatigue life analysis of welded structures

Based on the evolution of fatigue cracks in welded structures, the fatigue life of welded structures was defined as the sum of the crack initiation life N_i and the crack propagation life N_p. Correspondingly, a fatigue-life analysis method combining S-N curves and fracture mechanics theory was proposed. The equivalent structural stress method and the lower 99% boundary of the master S-N curve were used to evaluate N_i, and cracks at the end of the initiation stage were considered as semi-elliptical surface cracks. Moreover, Paris equation and the stress intensity factor range of the cracks were used to evaluate N_p. Furthermore, the fatigue test results obtained from the running girder of cranes were used as a reference for comparison and verification of the results. The results revealed that the equivalent structural stress is a good indicator for the crack initiation behavior of complex welded structures. In addition, the predicted fatigue life corresponded closely to the testing life.     

Crack initiation and kinking behaviours of spot welded coach peel specimens under cyclic loading

Abstract

The present study is carried out to investigate fatigue crack initiation and kinking behaviours of spot welded coach peel (CP) specimens of low carbon steel sheets subjected to cyclic loading by experimental and finite element analysis methods. Evaluations of fatigue crack growth stages were performed by crack tip plastic strains and J integral analyses and also by microhardness measurements on process zone. According to the experimental and analytical results, fatigue crack initiation and growing stages in the spot welded CP specimens can be divided to three stages. Stage I corresponds to 'gap sharpening stage' observed at the beginning steps of cyclic loading with crack growing on the interface plane between the overlapped sheets. Stage II corresponds to kinked crack initiation and propagation through the sheet thickness observed after applying a certain number of loading cycles. Stage III corresponds to crack propagation through the width of the specimens observed at the final step of the fatigue crack propagation. The FE results of the crack paths and crack locations are in good agreement with those of experimental observations.     

Influences of post-weld heat treatment on fatigue crack growth behaviour of strength mismatched HSLA steel welds

Abstract

Welding of high strength low alloy steels (HSLA) involves usage of low, even and high strength filler materials (electrodes) compared with the parent material depending on the application of the welded structures and the availability of the filler material. In the present investigation, the influences of post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) on fatigue crack growth behaviour of under matched (UM), equal matched (EM) and over matched (OM) weld metals has been studied. The base material used in this investigation is HSLA-80 steel of weldable grade. The Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) process has been used to fabricate the single 'V' butt joints. Centre Cracked Tension (CCT) specimens have been used to evaluate the fatigue crack growth behaviour of the welded joints. Fatigue crack growth experiments have been conducted using servo hydraulic controlled fatigue testing machine at constant amplitude loading (R = 0). From this investigation, it has been found that the fatigue performance of over matched joints is superior compared to under matched and equal matched joints. Moreover, PWHT reduced the magnitude of the tensile residual stress field in the weld region and subsequently enhanced the fatigue performance of the joints irrespective of weld metal strength mismatch.     

Effects of the Electron Beam Welding Process on the Microstructure,Tensile, Fatigue and Fracture Properties of Nickel Alloy Nimonic 80A

The purpose of this study was to evaluate rotary bending high-cycle fatigue properties and crack growth of Nimonic 80A-based metal and electron beam-welded joints. All the tests were performed at room temperature. Fracture surfaces under high-cycle fatigue and fatigue crack growth were observed by scanning electron microscopy. Microstructure, hardness and tensile properties were also evaluated in order to understand the effects on the fatigue results obtained. It was found that the tensile properties, hardness and high-cycle fatigue properties of the welded joint are lower than the base metal. The fracture surface of the high-cycle fatigue shows that fatigue crack initiated from the surface under the high stress amplitude and from the subsurface under the low stress amplitude. The effect of the welding process on the statistical fatigue data was studied with a special focus on probabilistic life prediction and probabilistic lifetime limits. The fatigue crack growth rate versus stress intensity factor range data were obtained from the fatigue crack growth tests. From the results, it was evident that the fatigue crack growth rates of the welded are higher than the base metal. The mechanisms and fracture modes of fatigue crack growth of welded specimens were found to be related to the stress intensity factor range ΔK. In addition, the effective fatigue crack propagation thresholds and mismatch of welded joints were described and discussed.     

Beeinflussung des Schwingungsrißkorrosions-Verhaltens verschweißter Proben durch das WIG- und Plasmanachbehandlungsverfahren

Influence of TIG- and plasma post-weld treatment on corrosion fatigue behaviour of welded specimens It has been proven that the treatment of welded seams with the aid of dressing can clearly increase the fatigue performance of welded constructions. In order to determine how the same treatment affects structures, which are subject to corrosion fatigue, welded specimens of EH 36 ship steel were made. TIG and Plasma dressings were used to remelt the transient zone of the weld. The fatigue behaviour of the specimens in air and artificial seawater was examined in comparison to specimens which had not been treated. The optimal parameters for these post-weld heat treatments were determined. The influence of the dressing methods was examined in dynamic and combined dynamic-corrosive tests. Parallel to these hardness-measurements, electrochemical and fractographic tests were also done. The effects of the dressings in constant amplitude corrosion fatigue tests were compared to corrosion fatigue behaviour under random loading. There is only little comparability between the results of the random loading tests and these of the constant amplitude tests. The results of this research show that the positive effect of the dressing methods on only dynamically tested structures is much better than under combined dynamic-corrosive loading. This is clearly due to the fact that the corrosion behaviour of the specimens cannot be influenced in the same way as the fatigue performance. If the corrosive effect is reduced by means of protective methods an increase in the effect of the dressing methods can be expected.     

Fatigue crack propagation in structural steel after flash welding

The study was carried out to evaluate the effect of the tempered martensite fraction in the fatigue behaviour of type R4 structural steel as used, quenched and tempered, in the manufacture of chains for offshore mooring systems. As the manufacturing process for these uses flash welding, the study also includes welded joints of the same steel. Different fractions of martensite were achieved by means of variations in the austenitization temperature of the material and the fatigue resistance of the tempered test pieces was evaluated by means of the kinetics of crack growth of crack under cyclic loading at a constant amplitude. The results indicated that an increase in the amount of ferrite was associated with an increase in the number of cycles to material failure, and for the same microstructural condition, the fatigue life of the welded joint was always lower than that of the base material. Finally, the fatigue behaviour of the test pieces is presented and discussed on the basis of the mechanical properties and toughness of the material.     

Influence of HAZ cracks on fatigue resistance of resistance spot welded joints made of advanced high strength steels

Abstract

A method is reported with which heat affected zone (HAZ) cracks in a specific region of spot welded joints, made of advanced high strength steels, could be realised. The influence of HAZ cracks on the fatigue behaviour, which is the focus of the contribution, was studied by evaluating the stiffness characteristics as a function of the number of cycles N in comparison with crack-free specimens, i.e. by analysing HAZ and fatigue cracks on the specimen surface and the surface of fatigue fractures containing beach marks. It was found that the fatigue cracks are not initiated at the HAZ cracks. The number of cycles to failure N_f is not significantly reduced for specimens with HAZ cracks. Overall, the examinations did not reveal any influence of HAZ cracks on the fatigue strength of resistance spot welded joints.     

Elektrochemische Untersuchung der Rißbildung bei Schwingungsrißkorrosion im stabil-passiven Werkstoffzustand

Electrochemical investigation of crack initiation during corrosion fatigue of stainless steels in the passive state The corrosion fatigue behaviour of three stainless steels - ferritic (12% Cr), austenitic (type 316 Ti) and austenitic-ferritic (type 31803; Duplex stainless steel) - was studied under rotating bending moments in aqueous sulphuric acid of 30°C. An instrumental set-up for recording the transient currents of specimens during potentiostatically controlled corrosion fatigue is described. Based on this transient current signal technique, three stages on the corrosion fatigue process can be discerned. In the incubation period, small stochastic current transients are caused by the response of the passive layer to alternating stresses and environmental conditions. The appearance of sinusoidal current signals indicates crack initiation whereas the phase angle between a fixed marker - i.e. a light barrier signal -, and the anodic amplitude represents the site of initiating cracks. Finally, the crack growth period is characterized by an increasing cell current and steadily growing sinusoidal current signals caused by the interplay of microplastic and repassivation processes at the crack tip.     

Effect of corrosive environment on the fatigue crack initiation and propagation behavior of Al 5454-H32

Fatigue behavior of aluminum alloy 5454- H32 was studied under laboratory air and 3 % NaCl solution environment using smooth cylindrical and notched plate specimens. Presence of 3 % NaCl environment during fatigue loading drastically reduced alloy fatigue life. The deleterious effect was pronounced in both types of specimens in the long- life regions, where the fatigue lives were lowered by as much as a factor of 10. However, the sharply notched specimens showed only a modest reduction in fatigue life in corrosive environment. The severe influence of the corrosive environment in the long- life (low- stress) regime cannot be explained merely by the early initiation of the fatigue crack from surface pits; the environmental contribution in the early crack growth regime must also be considered an important factor. Fracture surface studies revealed extensive pitting and some secondary cracking in the crack initiation region. It was shown that lowered fatigue life in Al 5454- H32 occurs by early initiation of fatigue cracks from surface pits. In addition, a corrosion pitting and secondary cracking process may be operative in the small crack growth region. This could have enhanced the early crack growth rate and thus contributed to the lower fatigue life in the long- cycle region.     

Short fatigue crack growth behaviour of a ferritic steel weld metal

Abstract

The present study deals with the short fatigue crack growth behaviour of a ferritic steel (nuclear grade SA 333 Grade 6 steel) weld metal at two load ratios R of 0.1 and –1. Single edge notched weld joint specimens were tested at different stress levels. The acceleration and deceleration in short crack growth with increasing stress intensity factor range was explained in terms of microstructure of weld metal. Acicular ferrite and grain boundary ferrite acted as barriers to crack growth. Non-propagating cracks were observed due to multiple cracks and blocking by ferrite grain boundaries. Transition crack length, the limiting crack length above which the crack exhibited a typical long crack behaviour, was determined to be 1 mm at R=0.1 and 1.5 mm at R=2 1.     

Thermomechanical and isothermal fatigue behaviour of type 316 stainless steel base metal,weld metal,and joint

Abstract

In phase thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) in the temperature range 573–973 K (300–700°C) and isothermal fatigue behaviour at 973 K in air were studied for type 316 stainless steel using smooth cylindrical specimens machined from base metal, weld metal, and the weld joint (cross-weld). In all joint specimens, fatigue failure occurred in the weld metal region. The lifetimes of weld metal and joint specimens were almost equal and were always inferior to those of base metal specimens. In the base metal, the effect of strain rate on the isothermal fatigue life was not very significant. Although TMF lifetimes were always a little shorter than the isothermal fatigue lifetimes in base metal, the difference was small for the same mechanical strain range and similar strain rate. This may be because the fracture mode for both types of loading was of a similar mixed type. Conversely, a dramatic reduction in lifetime was observed in weld metal and joint specimens under TMF in comparison with isothermal fatigue. This was attributed to the additional damage caused by many independent subsurface cracks at σ phase boundaries and linkage of these cracks with the surface crack, leading to rapid crack propagation. The δ ferrite in the weld metal completely transformed to σ phase in both the isothermal fatigue and TMF tests.