Extending multimedia research: How do prerequisite knowledge and reading comprehension affect learning from text and pictures

The present study aimed at extending research on multimedia design principles by investigating their validity as a function of learners’ reading comprehension and scientific literacy. Students (N = 125; age: M = 15.11 years) learned about cell reproduction during their regular Biology lessons in one of six conditions resulting from cross-varying multimedia (text only vs. text plus animations) and text modality (spoken vs. written vs. spoken and written). Recall and transfer were assessed immediately after learning and again 1 week later. Overall, adding animations to text as well as using spoken rather than written text improved only immediate recall; in addition, a multimedia effect for delayed recall was observed for learners with higher levels of scientific literacy. A redundant presentation of text proved harmful especially for delayed performance measures. Reading comprehension did not moderate multimedia design effects. Students with more suitable cognitive prerequisites were better able to maintain performance from the immediate to the delayed tests. Future multimedia research should further investigate the boundary conditions that moderate multimedia effectiveness.     

Emotional design and positive emotions in multimedia learning: An eyetracking study on the use of anthropomorphisms

The present eyetracking study examined the influence of emotions on learning with multimedia. Based on a 2 × 2 experimental design, participants received experimentally induced emotions (positive vs. neutral) and then learned with a multimedia instructional material, which was varied in its design (with vs. without anthropomorphisms) to induce positive emotions and facilitate learning. Learners who were in a positive emotional state before learning had better learning outcomes in comprehension and transfer tests and showed longer fixation durations on the text information of the learning environment. Although anthropomorphisms in the learning environment did not induce positive emotions, the eyetracking data revealed that learners' attention was captured by this design element. Hence, learners in a positive emotional state who learned with the learning environment that included anthropomorphisms showed the highest learning outcome and longest fixation on the relevant information of the multimedia instruction. Results indicate an attention arousing effect of expressive anthropomorphisms and the relevance of emotional states before learning.     

The impact of disfluency,pacing, and students’ need for cognition on learning with multimedia

In the current study, it was examined how learning with multimedia is affected by disfluency, pacing, and students’ need for cognition. Contrasting hypotheses were derived regarding how reducing the audio quality of spoken text by integrating hissing (disfluent) would affect learning outcomes. According to cognitive load theory, a disfluent audio quality should hamper learning, while according to disfluency theory, a disfluent audio quality should foster learning, especially when learning is self-paced. Moreover, self-paced learning should be particularly beneficial for learners with a high need for cognition (NFC). The hypotheses were tested in a 2 × 2-design, with quality of spoken text (regular vs. disfluent) and pacing (system-paced vs. self-paced) as independent variables and NFC as continuous variable. Supporting cognitive load theory, disfluent text decreased performance in a transfer and pictorial test. There was no significant interaction between spoken text quality and pacing. However, in line with previous research, self-pacing led to longer learning times and increased performance in a retention and in a transfer test. Moreover, results revealed that self-pacing had beneficial effects on understanding particularly for learners with a high NFC. This suggests that whether self-pacing of a multimedia instruction fosters understanding depends on learners’ specific cognitive prerequisites.     

Cognitive and affective effects of seductive details in multimedia learning

The present study integrates cognitive and affective aspects of media processing in order to make an argument for reexamining the current cold cognition perspective in multimedia research in favor of a more integrative perspective. The Cognitive-Affective-Theory-of-Learning-with-Media (CATLM) assumes that students need to become motivated to make full use of their cognitive resources. Therefore, and even though seductive details (sds) are additional interesting but unnecessary pieces of information that do not conform with the coherence principle, their possible motivational role should not be dismissed. Using a 2 × 3-experimental design, participants (N = 123) were asked to learn about biology with multimedia instruction that manipulated modality (text vs. narration) and presence of seductive details (no-sds vs. textual-sds vs. narrated-sds). Results of variance analyses show a modality effect. In addition, moderated mediation analyses with the moderator modality and mediator situational interest confirm the affective mediation assumption with the following two conditional effects. A direct detrimental effect of seductive details on learning performance under the text-condition and an indirect compensatory effect under the narration-condition were shown.     

The role of feedback and self-efficacy on web-based learning: The social cognitive perspective

The social cognitive perspective of self-regulated learning suggests that effective learning is determined by the interactions among personal, behavioral, and environmental influences; particularly, high self-regulated learners hold higher motivation (personal), apply better learning strategies (behavioral) and respond to environmental demand more appropriately (environmental). The study thus uses the social cognitive perspective to explore the role of self-efficacy (personal), student feedback behavior, use of learning strategies (behavioral), performance and receiving feedback (environmental) in Web-based learning. There were 76 university students participated in this study. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were applied for data analysis. The results supported that self-efficacy predicted student use of learning strategies and related to elaborated feedback behavior (personal → behavioral). High self-efficacy students applied more high-level learning strategies, such as elaborative strategy and critical thinking. Students who provided elaborated feedback also had higher self-efficacy than those who did not. Moreover, receiving elaborative feedback significantly promoted student self-efficacy (environmental → personal), while receiving knowledge of correct response improved student performance. However, the results indicated that feedback behaviors did not predict academic performance, which may be interfered by modeling effects.     

Short- and long-term effects of students’ self-directed metacognitive prompts on navigation behavior and learning performance

This study seeks to promote learning in computer-based learning environments utilizing students’ self-directed metacognitive prompts. Such prompts are based on the idea of instructing students to design their own metacognitive scaffolds and learn with them afterward. In a pre-post experimental design, students in the experimental group (n = 35) were instructed to configure their own metacognitive prompts before learning whereas students in the control group (n = 35) learned without prompts. Log file analysis of navigation behavior indicates that students who learned with their individually designed, self-directed prompts visited relevant webpages significantly more often and spent a longer time on them compared with students in the control group. Moreover, participants in the experimental group attained better transfer performance immediately after learning. The long-term effect in transfer performance was even greater in a follow-up learning session conducted after three weeks without any instructional support in either group. These results are consistent with theories of metacognition and self-regulated learning and indicate that self-directed prompts can lead to sustainable effects.     

Students’ perceptions of creativity in learning Information Technology (IT) in project groups

This paper explores students’ perceptions of creativity in learning Information Technology (IT) in project groups and the implications of better educating creative IT students for the future. Theoretically, the extension of social psychology research into creativity lays the basis of bringing creativity, learning and IT education into one framework. Empirically, qualitative interviews were carried out with 48 students from three disciplines, including Computer Science (n = 16), Electronic Systems (n = 15) and Medialogy (n = 17) at Aalborg University (AAU) in Denmark, which has a tradition of using problem-based learning (PBL) in student project groups. According to the findings, the students’ perceptions of creativity reflect their domain-related conceptualization and tacit learning experience, with different levels of confidence of being creative persons. As IT plays multiple roles in developing students’ creativity, it can be regarded as a ‘learning partner’. This implies that in the future creativity should be taught more explicitly, helping students to become creative IT talents as a part of their professional identity. It also requires teaching efforts to build a learning environment that stimulates creativity more effectively through more interactions between learners, learning tasks and learning tools.     

Level of interactivity and executive functions as predictors of learning in computer-based chemistry simulations

High school students’ learning outcomes was examined comparing exploratory vs. worked simulations. The effects of added icons and students’ executive functions were also examined. In Study 1, urban high school students (N = 84) were randomly assigned to one of four versions of a web-based simulation of kinetic molecular theory that varied in instructional format (exploratory vs. worked simulation) and representation (added icons vs. no added icons). Learning was assessed at two levels: comprehension and transfer. For transfer, a main effect was found for instructional format: the exploratory condition yielded greater levels of transfer than the worked simulation. Study 2 used the same conditions and a more complex simulation, the ideal gas law, with a similar sample of students (N = 67). For transfer, an interaction between instructional format and executive functions was found: Whereas students with higher levels of executive functions had better transfer with the exploratory condition, students with lower levels of executive functions had better transfer with the guided simulations. Results are discussed in relation to current theories of instructional design and learning.     

Effects of captions and time-compressed video on learner performance and satisfaction

Digital video is becoming increasingly popular in higher education with faculty digitally recording and broadcasting lectures for students to learn-on-demand, such as iTunes University or YouTube. Students have discovered accelerated playback features in popular computer software and use it to reduce the amount of time watching video-enhanced instruction. In the current study, 147 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of six video treatments based on a 3 Video Speed (1.0 = Normal vs. 1.25 = Fast vs. 1.50 = Very Fast) × 2 Captions (Captions Present vs. Captions Absent) × 2 Trial (Trial 1 vs. Trial 2) design. Results show no significant difference on learner performance across treatments based on Video Speed. Captions were found to have a significant negative effect on learner performance. A significant difference was found on learner satisfaction in favor of a normal Video Speed. The findings suggest that learners might be able to accelerate Video Speeds up to 1.5 times the normal speed, but are generally less satisfied with the learning experience.     

Learning with elaborative interrogations and the impact of learners' emotional states

Self‐generated learning (SGL) activities are characterized as an active learning strategy that functions as a support for deeper comprehension. However, the question arises which factors could be essential to fully exploit the effectiveness of SGL activities. One possible factor may be the emotional state of learners during learning. Because different emotional states are associated with different styles of information processing, in turn, they may support learning with SGL activities. Consequently, this study addresses learning with a type of SGL activities, answering elaborative interrogations, and the impact of learners' emotional states. German students (N = 123) were assigned to one of four conditions, resulting from a 2 × 2 design with instructional material (elaborative interrogations vs. no elaborative interrogations) and emotional state (positive vs. negative) as independent variables. Results showed that learners learning with elaborative interrogations experienced the instructional material as more difficult than without elaborative interrogations. Learning with them led to a better transfer learning outcome of concepts that had to be generated by interrogations (not for concepts that were already readable in the text) and had no effect for retention. Unexpectedly, neither an influence of the learners' emotional state nor an interaction of both independent variables could be shown.     

The role of visual complexity and prototypicality regarding first impression of websites: Working towards understanding aesthetic judgments

This paper experimentally investigates the role of visual complexity (VC) and prototypicality (PT) as design factors of websites, shaping users' first impressions by means of two studies. In the first study, 119 screenshots of real websites varying in VC (low vs. medium vs. high) and PT (low vs. high) were rated on perceived aesthetics. Screenshot presentation time was varied as a between-subject factor (50 ms vs. 500 ms vs. 1000 ms). Results reveal that VC and PT affect participants' aesthetics ratings within the first 50 ms of exposure. In the second study presentation times were shortened to 17, 33 and 50 ms. Results suggest that VC and PT affect aesthetic perception even within 17 ms, though the effect of PT is less pronounced than the one of VC. With increasing presentation time the effect of PT becomes as influential as the VC effect. This supports the reasoning of the information-processing stage model of aesthetic processing (Leder et al., 2004), where VC is processed at an earlier stage than PT. Overall, websites with low VC and high PT were perceived as highly appealing.     

Just-in-time,schematic supportive information presentation during cognitive skill acquisition

Cognitive load theory states that well-designed learning material minimizes extraneous cognitive load and optimizes germane cognitive load within the thresholds of available cognitive resources. In this study, the extraneous cognitive load is minimized by avoiding temporal split attention with regard to supportive information (i.e., conceptual models or ‘theory’) and the germane cognitive load is optimized by using schematic representations of this information to direct learner’s attention to concepts relevant for learning. A 2 × 2 between-groups design with the factors supportive information (before or during practice) and schematic representation (before or during practice) was used to investigate whether this balance between extraneous and germane load leads to more effective and efficient learning. It was found that the ‘supportive during, schema before’ format indeed yielded a higher learning efficiency than the ‘supportive before, schema before’ and the supportive during, schema during’ format but no differences were found for learning effectiveness (i.e., test performance).     

Credit rating by hybrid machine learning techniques

It is very important for financial institutions to develop credit rating systems to help them to decide whether to grant credit to consumers before issuing loans. In literature, statistical and machine learning techniques for credit rating have been extensively studied. Recent studies focusing on hybrid models by combining different machine learning techniques have shown promising results. However, there are various types of combination methods to develop hybrid models. It is unknown that which hybrid machine learning model can perform the best in credit rating. In this paper, four different types of hybrid models are compared by ‘Classification + Classification’, ‘Classification + Clustering’, ‘Clustering + Classification’, and ‘Clustering + Clustering’ techniques, respectively. A real world dataset from a bank in Taiwan is considered for the experiment. The experimental results show that the ‘Classification + Classification’ hybrid model based on the combination of logistic regression and neural networks can provide the highest prediction accuracy and maximize the profit.     

Linking objective design factors with subjective aesthetics: An experimental study on how structure and color of websites affect the facets of users’ visual aesthetic perception

The present study examines how objective design factors of a website are linked to different facets of subjective aesthetic perception. Five online experiments based upon the screenshots of real-existing websites with a total of N = 194 participants were conducted to isolate and analyze the effects of two objective structural factors (vertical symmetry, visual complexity) and three objective color factors (hue, saturation, brightness) on the different facets of subjective aesthetic perception (simplicity, diversity, colorfulness, craftsmanship) measured with the Visual Aesthetics of Website Inventory (Moshagen & Thielsch, 2010). Although all investigated factors are apparent features in website design, their effects on different facets of subjective aesthetic perception are not yet well understood. Our results show that websites of high symmetry, low complexity, blue hue, medium brightness or medium and high saturation received the highest overall aesthetics ratings. Furthermore, data reveal that structural factors compared to color factors have a manifold and greater impact on the different facets of subjective aesthetic perception than the color factors. Both structural factors have a great impact on simplicity, diversity and craftsmanship whereas the color factors have a great impact especially on colorfulness. Only complexity affects all facets of subjective aesthetic perception. The other objective design factors had effects on specific facets. Our findings shed light on the relationship between objective and subjective factors of aesthetic perception and may help designers to systematically target specific facets of visual aesthetics.     

Functionality and usability in design for eStatements in eBanking services

The current Internet Banking (eBanking) marketplace is highly functionally convergent. Electronic statement (eStatement) functionality is an area of potential competitive advantage. This paper describes an experiment in which a group of bank customers (N = 182) undertook information retrieval tasks using three variants of eStatements functionality incorporated into a working eBanking prototype. The experiment examined how the eStatements service design could influence a customer’s desire to switch from paper statements to online delivery. Three different levels of functionality were assessed for usability and for their impact on the customer’s willingness to switch from paper to eStatements. The methodology of the experimental approach utilised in this research is described. The results provide detailed data to inform the interface design and business case for eStatements. Usability and propensity to switch away from paper were significantly correlated. The data confirm that provision of a functionally sophisticated search engine offers high usability perceptions and scope for significant levels of switching from paper to online statements with associated costs savings.     

Selective reading of large online forum discussions: The impact of rating visualizations on navigation and learning

As discussions in online forums can become quite large, participants must be highly selective in their reading behavior. Standard, chronological displays of discussions provide little guidance in how to find valuable content. An experimental study tested whether a group awareness tool can support individual navigation and subsequent learning within a forum. 127 participants read through a large online discussion in which contributions were rated on average quality and average agreement. In a 2 × 2 factorial design, posts were visualized along continua indicating average quality ratings (absent vs. present) and/or average agreement ratings (absent vs. present). Results showed that the visualization of discussion contributions led to stronger deviations from a chronological reading order. Moreover, it was found that the presence of a quality dimension shifted readers’ focus to high-quality contributions (unipolar navigation). Moreover, the quality dimension was weakly associated with better performance in a knowledge test. In contrast, it was found that the presence of an agreement dimension shifted readers’ focus to both high-agreement and low-agreement contributions (bipolar navigation). Moreover, the agreement dimension was associated with stronger attitude change and a higher intention to participate. Implications for the use of group awareness tools in full-scale online forum environments are drawn.     

Exploring the effects of emotional design and emotional intelligence in multimedia-based learning: an engineering educational perspective

ABSTRACT

Emotions are an important aspect in learning and with the current boom in instructional technology, researchers are exploring methods to investigate how emotions may be manipulated to positively influence online learning. One such method is by adapting the theory of emotional design through multimedia elements. This theory emphasises on individuality and metacognition in exploring these learning outcomes and by this we choose to explore the effects of emotional intelligence (EI). We replicated the methodology used in previous research studies in emotional design in multimedia learning by further exploring the gaps from those studies especially the effects of negative design, EI and a new sample that primarily focusses on engineering undergraduates in Malaysia. This study was designed as a quantitative quasi-experimental using a 3?×?2 factorial design. Based on the findings, it was found that emotional design is a better predictor of cognitive outcomes, whereas EI was a better predictor of emotional outcomes such as motivation and satisfaction for multimedia-based learning. It was also found that positive and negative designs have similar effects on students’ learning outcomes, while EI affected perceived satisfaction in each design.     

The impact and response to electronic bullying and traditional bullying among adolescents

With adolescents’ frequent use of social media, electronic bullying has emerged as a powerful platform for peer victimization. The present two studies explore how adolescents perceive electronic vs. traditional bullying in emotional impact and strategic responses. In Study 1, 97 adolescents (mean age = 15) viewed hypothetical peer victimization scenarios, in parallel electronic and traditional forms, with female characters experiencing indirect relational aggression and direct verbal aggression. In Study 2, 47 adolescents (mean age = 14) viewed the direct verbal aggression scenario from Study 1, and a new scenario, involving male characters in the context of direct verbal aggression. Participants were asked to imagine themselves as the victim in all scenarios and then rate their emotional reactions, strategic responses, and goals for the outcome. Adolescents reported significant negative emotions and disruptions in typical daily activities as the victim across divergent bullying scenarios. In both studies few differences emerged when comparing electronic to traditional bullying, suggesting that online and off-line bullying are subtypes of peer victimization. There were expected differences in strategic responses that fit the medium of the bullying. Results also suggested that embarrassment is a common and highly relevant negative experience in both indirect relational and direct verbal aggression among adolescents.     

Assessing the effects of different multimedia materials on emotions and learning performance for visual and verbal style learners

Multimedia materials are now increasingly used in curricula. However, individual preferences for multimedia materials based on visual and verbal cognitive styles may affect learners' emotions and performance. Therefore, in-depth studies that investigate how different multimedia materials affect learning performance and the emotions of learners with visual and verbal cognitive styles are needed. Additionally, many education scholars have argued that emotions directly affect learning performance. Therefore, a further study that confirms the relationships between learners' emotions and performance for learners with visual and verbal cognitive styles will provide useful knowledge in terms of designing an emotion-based adaptive multimedia learning system for supporting personalized learning. To investigate these issues, the study applies the Style of Processing (SOP) scale to identify verbalizers and visualizers. Moreover, the emotion assessment instrument emWave, which was developed by HeartMath, is applied to assess variations in emotional states for verbalizers and visualizers during learning processes. Three different multimedia materials, static text and image-based multimedia material, video-based multimedia material, and animated interactive multimedia material, were presented to verbalizers and visualizers to investigate how different multimedia materials affect individual learning performance and emotion, and to identify relationships between learning performance and emotion. Experimental results show that video-based multimedia material generates the best learning performance and most positive emotion for verbalizers. Moreover, dynamic multimedia materials containing video and animation are more appropriate for visualizers than static multimedia materials containing text and image. Finally, a partial correlation exists between negative emotion and learning performance; that is, negative emotion and pretest scores considered together and negative emotion alone can predict learning performance of visualizers who use video-based multimedia material for learning.     

Assessing the effects of different multimedia materials on emotions and learning performance for visual and verbal style learners

Multimedia materials are now increasingly used in curricula. However, individual preferences for multimedia materials based on visual and verbal cognitive styles may affect learners' emotions and performance. Therefore, in-depth studies that investigate how different multimedia materials affect learning performance and the emotions of learners with visual and verbal cognitive styles are needed. Additionally, many education scholars have argued that emotions directly affect learning performance. Therefore, a further study that confirms the relationships between learners' emotions and performance for learners with visual and verbal cognitive styles will provide useful knowledge in terms of designing an emotion-based adaptive multimedia learning system for supporting personalized learning. To investigate these issues, the study applies the Style of Processing (SOP) scale to identify verbalizers and visualizers. Moreover, the emotion assessment instrument emWave, which was developed by HeartMath, is applied to assess variations in emotional states for verbalizers and visualizers during learning processes. Three different multimedia materials, static text and image-based multimedia material, video-based multimedia material, and animated interactive multimedia material, were presented to verbalizers and visualizers to investigate how different multimedia materials affect individual learning performance and emotion, and to identify relationships between learning performance and emotion. Experimental results show that video-based multimedia material generates the best learning performance and most positive emotion for verbalizers. Moreover, dynamic multimedia materials containing video and animation are more appropriate for visualizers than static multimedia materials containing text and image. Finally, a partial correlation exists between negative emotion and learning performance; that is, negative emotion and pretest scores considered together and negative emotion alone can predict learning performance of visualizers who use video-based multimedia material for learning.