The development of fatigue damage around fastener holes in thick graphite/epoxy composite laminates

This paper discusses the mechanisms by which damage develops and grows around countersunk fastener holes in composite laminates under fatigue loading conditions. Experiments have shown that the erosion of material between ply layers nucleates delaminations which then grow through the laminate under the action of the fatigue loads. The damage at the hole bore surface produces sites for the nucleation of delaminations. The morphology of the delaminations and ply cracking was mapped extensively and from these maps it was found that the volume of material around the fastener hole, damaged by the fatigue loading, adopted a characteristic shape; the volume of damaged laminate increased towards the faying surface of the laminate and (metal) fixture. This characteristic damage volume was generated by the fastener rocking under the fatigue loads. Growth of the delaminations has been shown to be preceded by intraply cracking and, as fatigue loading proceeded, more delaminations were generated at the hole bore surface. The interfacial region between the composite laminate and the fixture also provided the nucleation site for fatigue cracks in the fasteners. The effects of initial fastener-hole clearances on damage nucleation and growth did not appear to follow any clear pattern. However, coupons with excessive initial hole clearances did appear to exhibit greater than expected damage growth after only one sequence block.Several techniques for the measurement of damage growth (development) were investigated. Stiffness measurements of the test system were found to show only small changes with hole wear and fastener rocking (using shadow moire techniques) also showed only small changes with hole wear. Ultrasonic C-scanning methods were used to map the extent of damage around the fastener holes with fatigue loading.The experimental work has shown that damage development around fastener holes is a complex process, usually producing several delaminations in the region of the fastener hole which grow and may ultimately lead to the failure of the coupon.     

Fatigue damage mechanisms and residual properties of graphite/epoxy laminates

Damage mechanisms and accumulation, and associated stiffness and residual strength reductions were studied in cross-ply graphite/epoxy laminates under cyclic tensile loading. Stress-life data were fitted by a two-parameter wearout model and by a second-degree polynomial on a log-log scale. The fatigue sensitivity is highest for the unidirectional laminates and it decreases for the crossply laminates with increasing number of contiguous 90° plies. Five different damage mechanisms were observed: transverse matrix cracking, dispersed longitudinal cracking, localized longitudinal cracking, delaminations along transverse cracks, and local delaminations at the intersection of longitudinal and transverse cracks. Failure patterns vary with cyclic stress level and number of cycles to failure. Under monotonie loading, failure is brittle-like and concentrated. At high stress amplitudes and short fatigue lives failure results from few localized flaws, whereas at lower stress amplitudes and longer fatigue lives failure results from more dispersed flaws. The residual modulus shows a sharp reduction initially, followed by a more gradual decrease up to failure. The residual strength showed a sharp reduction initially, followed by a plateau or even some increase in the middle part of the fatigue life, and a rapid decrease in the last part of the fatigue life. A tentative cumulative damage model is proposed based on residual strength and the concept of equal damage curves.     

单螺栓修复对含冲击损伤碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料层合板压缩承载能力的影响

开展了单钉修复对含冲击损伤碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料层合板压缩承载能力影响的试验研究。测试了三种不同能量冲击后碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料层合板的压缩承载能力及失效模式,测定了单螺栓对碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料层合板压缩承载能力的修复效率,并借助数字图像相关技术(DIC)表征手段揭示了单螺栓修复对含冲击损伤结构失效行为的影响。结果表明:冲击后碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料层合板的压缩承载能力随着冲击能量的增加而降低,冲击损伤破坏了碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料层合板结构的对称性,并导致结构在加载初期呈非对称的局部屈曲变形特征,局部屈曲诱发并加剧分层损伤扩展;单螺栓修复能有效恢复结构的整体对称性,在一定程度上抑制含冲击损伤碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料层合板的局部屈曲,达到可观的修复效率。该研究为复合材料紧固件修理方案的制订及修理损伤容限的定义提供一定的指导意义。      

Characterization of damage initiation and propagation in graphite/epoxy laminates by acoustic emission

A method of characterizing two major failure processes in graphite/epoxy compositestransverse cracking and mode I delamination, has been studied. Representative laminates were tested in uniaxial tension and flexure. The failure processes were monitored and characterized by acoustic emission (AE). The effects of moisture on AE were also investigated. Each damage process was found to have a distinctive AE output and to follow a definite trend which was significantly affected by moisture conditions. It was concluded that AE can serve as a useful tool for detecting and identifying these failure modes in composite structures in laboratory and in service environments.     

Mixed-mode interlaminar fracture and damage characterization in woven fabric-reinforced glass/epoxy composite laminates at cryogenic temperatures using the finite element and improved test methods

The present research examines experimentally and analytically the mixed-mode interlaminar fracture and damage behavior of glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) woven laminates at cryogenic temperatures. The mixed-mode bending (MMB) tests were performed with the improved test apparatus, at room temperature, liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K) and liquid helium temperature (4 K). The energy release rates at the onset of delamination crack propagation were evaluated for the woven GFRP specimens using both beam theory and finite element analysis. The fracture surfaces were also examined to verify the fracture mechanisms. In addition, the initiation and growth of damage in the specimens were predicted by a damage analysis, and the damage effect on the mixed-mode interlaminar fracture properties at cryogenic temperatures was explored.     

复合材料单钉接头疲劳累积损伤破坏分析

基于时间增量原理 , 推导了层合板接头疲劳加载累积损伤应力2应变分析的虚功方程。同时 , 引入Hashin三维疲劳失效准则进行材料的损伤判定 , 并结合建立的疲劳加载材料退化模型、 4种基本损伤机制相互关联作用的材料性能退化方法及复合材料接头最终失效判据 , 建立了层合板接头疲劳载荷作用下三维累积损伤分析的寿命预测方法。最后 , 对层合板接头拉2拉疲劳载荷作用下的损伤累积扩展与失效规律进行了仿真分析 , 并与试验结果进行了对比 , 结果表明 : 本文中建立的寿命预测方法能够很好地预测层合板接头的寿命以及损伤发生、扩展及最终失效。      

Fracture toughness of transverse cracks in graphite/epoxy laminates at cryogenic conditions

Stress singularity of a transverse crack normal to ply-interface in a composite laminate is investigated using analytical and finite element methods. Four-point bending tests were performed on single-notch bend specimens of graphite/epoxy laminates containing a transverse crack perpendicular to the ply-interface. The experimentally determined fracture loads were applied to the finite element model to estimate the fracture toughness. The procedures were repeated for specimens under cryogenic conditions. Although the fracture loads varied with specimen thickness, the critical stress intensity factor was constant for all the specimens indicating that the measured fracture toughness can be used to predict delamination initiation from transverse cracks. For a given crack length and laminate configuration, the fracture load at cryogenic temperature was significantly lower. The results indicate that fracture toughness does not change significantly at cryogenic temperatures, but the thermal stresses play a major role in fracture and initiation of delaminations from transverse cracks.     

碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料动态拉伸试验研究与损伤分析

利用MTS试验机和分离式Hopkinson拉杆对2种碳纤维/环氧树脂(T300/epoxy)层合板试件[(45/-45)₄]_S和[(0/45/90/-45)₂]_S进行了准静态(应变率10-5~10-4 s-1)、中速(应变率10-1~101 s-1)和高速(应变率102~104 s-1)冲击拉伸试验。在热力学框架内建立了基于损伤能释放率的弹塑性动力损伤本构模型,用该损伤模型来分析试件的动态拉伸失效过程。模型中提出了3种基本损伤机制(纤维断裂、基体开裂及面内剪切)的演化规律,通过对损伤阈值黏性归一化的方法考虑了应变率对损伤演化的影响。编写了该模型有限元用户材料子程序,并模拟了拉伸试验过程,计算结果表明该模型能够较好地模拟碳纤维/环氧树脂层合板动态拉伸失效过程。     

Experimental determination of elastic properties of impact damage in carbon fibre/epoxy laminates

This paper describes an investigation of in-plane elastic properties of impact damaged regions in composite laminates. Quasi-isotropic carbon fibre/epoxy laminates were impacted and the impact damage examined by ultrasonic C-scanning, optical microscopy and thermal deplying. After impact damage observations, specimens were cut from the laminates and tested in tension and compression. The elastic modulus of the impact damage was, in both tension and compression, mainly controlled by the amount of fibre breakage. Interestingly, layers with broken fibres could sustain some load in compression, which led to higher elastic modulus in compression than in tension. The effect of delaminations on the elastic modulus was quite small in both tension and compression. The through-the-thickness variation of in-plane stiffness was studied by successively removing plies. The variation in stiffness was negligible, probably as a result of the very uniform distribution of delaminations and fibre breakage through the thickness of the laminates.     

Nonlinear analysis of interlaminar stress in graphite/epoxy laminates with and without delamination cracks

A quasi three-dimensional yield function, which is quadratic in stresses except for σ₁₁, is proposed for graphite/epoxy composites. The elastic-plastic interlaminar stress response near a free edge in the [90/0]_s, [0/90]_s, and [45/−45]_s laminates with and without delamination cracks was investigated using the pseudo three-dimensional finite element technique. The plasticity model was evaluated by comparison with off-axis experimental data. Since shear response is the key element for nonlinear stress-strain behavior of graphite/epoxy composites, the plasticity theory predicts interlaminar stresses in the [45/−45]_s laminate significantly different from linear elasticity. Moreover, the existence of a delamination crack caused more plasticity effects on interlaminar stresses.     

Low-velocity impact response of fibre–metal laminates – Experimental and finite element analysis

In this contribution, the impact dynamic response and failure modes of fibre–metal laminated panels subjected to low velocity impact were investigated and presented. The fibre–metal laminate in this paper comprised of a layer of glass fibre-reinforced plastics sandwiched between two layers of aluminium alloy. Two different types of glass fibre-reinforced plastics were used for the fabrication: unidirectional and woven. A fairly extensive experimental investigation was conducted in conjunction with a detailed finite element analysis. The experiments were conducted using a standard drop-weight test machine and the finite element analysis was carried out using a commercially available finite element software. The results of maximum contact force, contact duration and corresponding failure modes are presented, compared and discussed in this technical paper.     

Effect of stitching on the low-velocity impact response of [03/903]s graphite/epoxy laminates

This study examines the effect of stitching on the impact performance of a class of graphite/epoxy cross-ply laminates with the aim of investigating the ability of through-thickness reinforcement to improve the delamination resistance of laminates.Unstitched and stitched rectangular specimens (65 mm × 87.5 mm) were simply supported by a steel plate having a rectangular opening 45 mm × 67.5 mm in size and impacted at the center with energies ranging between 1 and 13 J. Stitched and unstitched laminates revealed similar structural performances in terms of force versus displacement response, energy absorption and residual indentation depth. It was also observed that whereas stitching does not appear capable of preventing the initiation and spread of delaminations, it induces a clear reduction of damage area when stitches bridge delaminations sufficiently developed in length.     

Modeling of permeation and damage in graphite/epoxy laminates for cryogenic tanks in the presence of delaminations and stitch cracks

Composites are extensively used for various aerospace applications and one of its important potential uses is as cryogenic fuel tank material for crew launch vehicles. Composites offer high specific strength and stiffness, and therefore are preferred over many other materials. However under structural mechanical loads and/or thermal loads, transverse micro-cracks develop in the polymer matrix. These cracks along with interlaminar delaminations produced at the crack tips, lead to permeation of cryogenic fuel permeation through the laminates. In this study, mathematical models have been proposed to determine the delaminated crack opening displacement (DCOD) for each ply of a damaged laminate and the permeability associated with it. In addition, a stitch crack model has been proposed to address experimental observations. The through-thickness DCOD distribution for a damaged composite under the action of thermal and/or mechanical load is predicted using a five-layer model which is developed based on first order shear deformation theory. The DCOD predicted by this mathematical model, with and without stitch cracks, shows good agreement with two dimensional finite element analysis. The DCOD values predicted for IM7/5250-4 laminate of lay-up [0/45/−45/90]_S were used to predict permeability using Darcy’s law for fluid flow through porous media. The analysis results were benchmarked using test data from Air Force Research Laboratory. A parametric study for permeability conducted with varying stitch crack lengths shows that the permeability of the composite is sensitive to this form of damage in individual plies.     

The finite element analysis of composite laminates and shell structures subjected to low velocity impact

In this investigation, the composite laminate and shell structures subjected to low velocity impact are studied by the ANSYS/LS-DYNA finite element software. The contact force is calculated by the modified Hertz contact law in conjunction with the loading and unloading processes. In the case of composite laminate, the impact-induced damage including matrix cracking and delamination are predicted by the appropriated failure criteria and the damaged area are plotted. Two types of shell structure, cylindrical and spherical shells, are considered in this paper. The effects of various parameters, such as shell curvature, clamped or simple supported boundary conditions and impactor velocity are examined through the parametric study. Numerical results show that structures with greater stiffness, such as smaller curvature and clamped boundary condition, result to a larger contact force and a smaller deflection. The impact response of the structure is proportional to the impactor velocity.     

Recent developments on damage modeling and finite element analysis for composite laminates: A review

Under complex environments such as continuous or cyclic loads, the stiffness degradation for the laminated composites such as the carbon fiber reinforced polymer matrix composites is an important physical and mechanical response to the damage and failure evolution. It is essential to simulate the initial and subsequent evolution process of this kind of damage phenomenon accurately in order to explore the mechanical properties of composite laminates. This paper gives a comprehensive review on the general methodologies on the damage constitutive modeling by continuum damage mechanics (CDM), the various failure criteria, the damage evolution law simulating the stiffness degradation, and the finite element implementation of progressive failure analysis in terms of the mechanical response for the variable-stiffness composite laminates arising from the continuous failure. The damage constitutive modeling is discussed by describing the evolvement of damage tensors and conjugate forces in the CDM theory. The failure criteria which interpret the failure modes and their interaction are compared and some advanced methods such as the cohesive theory which are used to predict the damage evolution properties of composites are also discussed. In addition, the solution algorithm using finite element analysis which implements progressive failure analysis is summarized and several applicable methods which deal with the numerical convergence problem due to singular finite element stiffness matrices are also compared in order to explore the whole failure process and ultimate load-bearing ability of composite laminates. Finally, the multiscale progressive failure analysis as a popular topic which associates the macroscopic with microscopic damage and failure mechanisms is discussed and the extended finite element method as a new finite element technique is expected to accelerate its practical application to the progressive failure analysis of composite laminates.     

The role of microdamage in tensile failure of graphite/epoxy laminates

Damage development during quasistatic tensile loading of several laminates of graphite/epoxy material is examined and compared to damage development in laminates of a similar graphite/epoxy material subjected to tension-tension fatigue loading. Emphasis is placed upon following damage development at the microstructural level. Evidence of the important role of off-axis ply cracks in localizing and controlling fiber fracture in adjacent load-bearing plies for both loading modes is resented. The relationship between fiber fracture density and static load level is presented for tensile loading of unidirectional and cross-ply laminates by direct observation of fiber fracture in situ. The frequencies of occurrence of multiple adjacent fiber fractures are also reported. The cross-ply laminate results are compared with those from fatigue testing. Significant differences are described and discussed.     

Cryogenic through-thickness tensile characterization of plain woven glass/epoxy composite laminates using cross specimens: Experimental test and finite element analysis

This paper investigates the through-thickness tensile behavior of woven glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite laminates at cryogenic temperatures. Tensile tests were carried out with cross specimens at room temperature and liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K), and the through-thickness elastic and strength properties of the woven GFRP laminates were evaluated. The failure characteristics of the woven GFRP laminates were also studied by optical and laser scanning microscopy observations. A three-dimensional finite element analysis was performed to calculate the stress distributions in the cross specimens, and the failure conditions of the specimens were examined. It is found that the cross specimen is suitable for the cryogenic through-thickness tensile characterization of laminated composite materials. In addition, the through-thickness Young's modulus of the woven GFRP composite laminates is dominated by the properties of the matrix polymer in the given temperature, while the tensile strength is characterized by both, the fiber to matrix interface energy and the cohesion energy of the matrix polymer.     

Experimental observations and finite element modelling of damage initiation and evolution in carbon/epoxy non-crimp fabric composites

Damage in carbon/epoxy non-crimp stitched fabric (NCF) reinforced composites, produced by the resin transfer moulding (RTM) process is described. Formation of the stitching loop results in a certain disturbance of the uniform placement of the fibres. These deviations in fibre placement produce resin-rich zones that can influence the mechanical behaviour of the composite part. Tensile tests on quadriaxial (45°/90°-45°/0°)_s laminates are performed accompanied by acoustic emission (AE) registration and X-ray imaging. Early initiation of damage (matrix cracking) in plies with different fibre orientation has been detected. Damage sites correlate with the resin-rich zones created by the stitching. Finite element (FE) analysis is carried out to develop a model that describes damage of the NCF composites. Numerical multi-level FE homogenization is performed to obtain effective elastic orthotropic properties of NCF composite at micro (unit cell of unidirectional tow) and meso (fabric unit cell) levels. A hierarchical sequence of FE models of different scales is created to analyze in detail the 3D stress state of the NCF composite (meso unit cell). A multi-level submodeling approach is applied during FE analysis. Zones of matrix-dominated damage are predicted. A comparison of non-destructive testing results with computational model is performed. Fracture mechanics parameters of matrix crack are computed and cracks growth stability is studied.     

Statistical analysis for fatigue life evaluation of woven E-glass/epoxy composite laminates containing off-centre interacting circular holes

Mechanics of Time-Dependent Materials - Fatigue behaviour of woven E-glass/epoxy composite laminates containing off-centre interacting circular holes was determined under sinusoidal loading in...