Characteristics of Extrusive Wear and Transition of Wear Mechanisms in Elevated-Temperature Wear of a Carbon Steel

The dry sliding wear of a medium carbon steel with different microstructures was measured under the normal load range of 50–150 N at 400°C by a pin-on-disc high-temperature wear setup. The wear behavior and wear mechanism were systematically studied; in particular, the characteristics of extrusive wear and the transition of wear mechanisms were investigated. Under low normal loads, the wear is oxidative type wear. Once the normal load reached a critical value, a mild-to-severe wear transition occurred, and subsequently an extrusive wear prevailed. The mild-to-severe wear transition depended on the microstructure of matrix; the critical normal load of the transition was 112.5 N for tempered sorbite, 125 N for lamellar pearlite, and 137.5 N for tempered martensite and tempered troostite. As oxidative wear prevailed, a thick oxide layer about 20–30 μ m and a plate-like wear debris with regular outline were recognized. However, as the extrusive wear occurred, the wear rate abruptly increased but the friction coefficient was reduced. The extrusive wear predominated due to thermal softening of the matrix and presented a superthin oxide layer (less than 0.5 μ m) and low oxide content on worn surfaces, accompanied by the appearance of ribbon-like wear debris.     

Comparative Study of Wear Behaviors of a Selected Titanium Alloy and AISI H13 Steel as a Function of Temperature and Load

A comparative study of the wear behaviors of a selected titanium alloy and AISI H13 steel as a function of temperature and load was performed on a high-temperature wear tester. The titanium alloy and H13 steel presented totally different wear behaviors with the variation in temperature and load. Their behaviors are suggested to be attributed to the protective ability of tribo-oxides and the thermal softening resistance of the matrix. Compared to H13 steel, the titanium alloy presented poor room-temperature wear resistance, excellent high-temperature wear resistance, and an extremely protective function of tribo-oxides.     

Embedding Wear Models into Friction Models

Frictional behavior in dry or boundary-lubricated tribosystems is commonly time-dependent. Examples include phenomena like running-in, scuffing initiation, adhesive transfer, coating wear-through, and lubricant starvation. Fundamental models for the sliding friction coefficient usually focus either on determining a steady–state value or on predicting periodic behavior like stick-slip. They often neglect the details of long- and short-period frictional transients, some of which are quite repeatable. In addition to generating heat, frictional work is known to be dissipated in several ways, including roughness changes, wear particle generation, tribomaterial evolution, and microstructural alteration. Pairs of materials can display identical average friction coefficients but significantly different wear processes because frictional work is dissipated differently from one pair of materials to the next. The attributes of friction-versus-time behavior for combinations of metals, ceramics, and polymers can be comprised of stages whose understanding may require the development of piecewise friction models that include wear. This paper discusses past work on the subject, exemplifies embedding a simple wear model into a friction-versus-time model, and indicates how friction process diagrams can play a role.     

Friction and Wear Behavior of Steels under Different Reciprocating Sliding Conditions

The friction and wear behavior of ISO 100Cr6 steel ball sliding against conventionally hardened carbon and low-alloy steels was studied. The effect of hardness, hardening capacity, normal load, and sliding speed on the coefficient of friction and friction energy was investigated. Friction tests were carried out, without lubrication and under ambient conditions, on a reciprocating friction tester in which a ball-on-flat contact configuration was adopted. The results showed that there is a relative tendency for the friction properties to decrease with increased hardening capacity and decreased hardness. The results showed that increasing normal load decreases the coefficient of friction for the two steel nuances. However, increasing sliding speed increases the coefficient of friction of low-alloy steel and decreases the coefficient of friction of carbon steel. The oxidation of wear debris influences the wear mechanisms and friction behavior.     

Microstructure and Wear Behavior of a Manganese Bronze Bearing Material under Unlubricated Conditions

In an attempt to collect information about the tribological performance of copper-based bearings, the friction and wear behaviors of C86300 manganese bronze were investigated. The characteristics of the base material were determined by structural and mechanical investigations. Then, dry sliding pin-on-disc wear tests were performed against an AISI 52100 steel counterface. After the wear tests, the worn surfaces of the pins and wear debris were studied by scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. In addition, light optical microscopy and microhardness measurements were performed for examination of the steel counterfaces and worn pin subsurface layers. With increasing normal load, the wear rate of commercial C86300 alloy (containing 0.6 wt% Si) decreased initially and then began to increase. After reaching a maximum wear rate at the load of about 60 N, the wear rate decreased again with a further increase in the normal load. However, the wear rate of this C86300 alloy mainly decreased with increasing sliding speed. Adhesive and abrasive wear were the dominant wear mechanisms under the designed conditions.     

Layer-Graded Cu/B4C/Graphite Hybrid Composites: Processing,Characterization, and Evaluation of Their Mechanical and Wear Behavior

In this article, we synthesized and studied functionally graded multilayered Cu/B₄C/graphite hybrid composites. Two classes of layer-graded composites were considered: pure Cu layer with two layers consisting of different particle sizes and uniform particle volume and a pure Cu layer with a single additional layer. The properties of the layer-graded composites were compared to those of single layer composites of two different particle sizes (1–20 µm and 60–90 µm). The composites were tested for compression strength, flexural strength, hardness, density, and wear and braking performance at a range of sliding speed conditions (5, 10, 30, and 35 m/s). The microstructure of the interfaces in the layer-graded composites was characterized to determine the quality of bonding. We found that the layer-graded composites possess improved compression and flexural strength due to lower porosity and residual compressive stress in the composite layer aided by the work-hardening of the Cu layer. The presence of the ductile Cu layer improves the toughness and crack resistance properties of layer-graded composites by macrostructure toughening mechanism. The layer-graded composites possess improved wear resistance and braking performance at both low and high sliding speed conditions due to reduced third-body wear, oxidation, and softening of composites, aided by effective heat conduction through the Cu layer. Finally, the wear mechanisms operating at various speeds were discussed with the help of microscopic and X ray diffraction studies.     

Friction and Wear Characteristics Due to Stick-Slip under Fretting Conditions

Friction and wear characteristics between two steel surfaces under fretting conditions are investigated experimentally. The fretting damage caused by low-amplitude oscillatory sliding can be classified into three regimes of gross-slip, mixed-slip, and partial-slip due to the stick-slip phenomenon. One of the most important characteristics of fretting wear is the transition from gross-slip to mixed-slip. Several criteria have been introduced for a quantitative determination of the transition between mixed-slip and gross-slip. However, the transition criteria have some problems in determining the regimes because parameters are difficult to calculate or depend on the system. To introduce new transition criteria in this study, the phase difference between friction force and relative displacement is used to determine the transition and predict the fretting wear. It is found that the phase difference with a range of 0° to 90° can predict the onset of fretting conditions.     

钢铜摩擦副摩擦磨损特性的试验研究

本文试验分析了ＺＱＡ１９－４和ＺＱＺｎ６－６－３两种铜合金材料在不同的表面粗糙度下对摩擦系数和出口区油温的影响，以及改变载荷和相对滑动速度时，摩擦系数的变化状况。结果表明；铜合金成分不同时具有不同的硬度。     

The Coupling of Waviness and Heating in a Seal

Thermoviscous lubricant flow in seals and bearings is treated as a Couette flow, and a fully coupled perturbation flow, which results from waviness of the boundary, and which gives rise to uneven heat input into the solid boundaries. Differences in modes of heat transfer within the seal rings and out to the environment are separable, and determine the thermoviscous behavior of the film in a simple way. The temperature perturbation, or wave, in the film is an order of magnitude smaller than the perturbation of heat generation, justifying the assumption of isothermal and isoviscous flow.

Calculations show that materials such as C and SiC cannot be idealized as insulators when run against metals.     

The Friction and Wear Model of Steels and Their Probable Statistic Calculations

Based on a systematic analysis of steel wear surfaces by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Auger Electron Microscopy (AES), a statistical model for friction and wear of steels is proposed. Three categories of contact are proposed; oxide-oxide, metal-metal, and metal-oxide. Each category of contact is related to a probability distribution on the real contact area. Using a new concept of nascently exposed metallic surfaces, this paper derived the mathematical expressions for the friction coefficient and wear rate by means of statistical methods. The calculated values are in good agreement with measured values.     

混合型轴承摩擦机理的研究

采用Timken摩擦试验机在空气中,水、润滑油及合成油脂润滑状态下对M50钢、热静等压氮化硅陶瓷轴承元件的摩擦机理进行了研究.对各种参数包括速度、滑动距离和润滑剂进行了比较.     

Measurement of Friction Surface and Wear Rate between a Carbon Graphite Brush and a Copper Ring

A pin-on-disc surface friction tester designed by the authors was used to measure the surface friction temperature of a carbon graphite brush sliding against a copper ring under the condition of no flow by electric current. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) fabrication techniques including sputtering, lithography, and etching processes were utilized to fabricate metal film temperature sensors on the surface of the carbon graphite brush. The true temperature measurement system of the friction surface of the carbon graphite brush was then established. A USB-DAQ system and LabVIEW software were adopted for the data acquisition/management of analog signals. In this research, the relationship between friction temperature and wear rate was investigated using experiment data. Optical and scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the friction surface of the carbon graphite brush were taken and analyzed to study the effect of temperature on the friction surface. From this experiment, it was found that the debris of a mixture of brush and copper particles softens under high temperature, adheres to the brush surface, and forms flattened areas. These smooth, flattened areas in turn lower the friction coefficient.     

橡胶摩擦磨损过程中振动现象的研究

利用测振仪对丁腈橡胶在摩擦磨损过程中出现的振动进行了测量,发现振幅随着转速的提高而逐渐增大,但达到某一临界转速后,振幅随转速增大而减小。通过理论分析发现振动现象的实质是构胶对销子的作用力的周期性变化引起销子的受迫振动。该现象与摩擦力密切相关,同时还造成磨损抽不均匀。     

Bio-Fuel-Contaminated Lubricant and Hardening Effects on the Friction and Wear of AISI 1045 Steel

A study has been made on the wear and friction of hardened AISI 1045 steel using a tri-pin-on-disc type of friction and wear apparatus. During the investigation the linear pin wear, coefficient of friction and rise in pin specimen temperature were monitored and wear and friction curves plotted. Wear surfaces and mechanisms were investigated by means of optical microscopy. Analysis of used lubricating oil was performed using FTIR spectroscopy.

It was shown that the wear rate, type of wear and friction coefficient were influenced by contaminating the lubricant with bio-fuel as well as the surface hardening treatment. Corrosive wear and pits on the specimen surface were found when plain bio-fuel was used as lubricating oil. The results also confirmed that better wear resistance was obtained from the surface-hardened steel specimen with 4 % bio-fuel-contaminated lubricant.

Results from this study will be useful in material selection for tribological components in diesel engines running on vegetable fuel.     

改进微静电马达的摩擦与磨损

在微观结构中,摩擦及磨损严重地影响着部件的力学性能和可能性不同材料的摩擦系数相差很大,多晶硅和多晶硅之间的静摩擦系数约４．９,多晶硅和单晶硅之间的静摩擦系数约０．４８￣０．２８,动摩擦系数约０．３５￣０．２０,材料表面的粗糙度对摩擦系数影响也很大。鉴于此,提出了一种单晶硅台面结构晃动微马达,取代多同机械工艺制作的多晶硅法兰盘。它具有机械强度高、摩擦系数、抗磨损、不塌陷等优点,马达的轴也加工成实心轴     

湿煤粉条件下丁腈橡胶摩擦磨损规律的研究

国内外对橡胶材料在煤粉条件下的摩擦磨损特性尚缺乏研究,因而对丁腈橡胶在湿煤粉条件下的磨料磨损进行了研究,发现其磨损机理为疲劳磨损,磨损率随着法向载荷的增大而增大,随着放置速度的增大而减小;而摩擦系数则与法向载荷和旋转速度大致无关,其中水份在丁腈橡胶磨料磨损中主要起着三个作用：⑴对煤粉的粘结作用;⑵水膜的润滑作用;⑶降低瓣工作温度。     

Friction and Wear Transitions in Carbons (Temperature and Stress Analysis)

In this paper, the friction and wear behavior of a carbon composite is studied. Friction tests were performed under constant friction mode. The power inputs were increased gradually to study their effects on friction transition at ambient air environment. Friction surfaces were examined using various macro and nanoscopic techniques to understand the evolution of friction transition. Structural changes of friction film have been observed from graphitic allotropic form to amorphous type structure. This sudden change leads to an increase of the coefficient of friction. It seems that the inter-laminar shearing, disruption of the film and sample cracking might cause the friction transition. Analysis from stress field simulation shows that cracks were more likely to occur at the trailing edge of the sample at the end of transition. This study shows that any type of failure (mechanical or thermal fatigue) of the friction film or bulk material is sufficient to generate friction and wear instabilities.     

WC—NiP合金密封材料的摩擦磨损特性

本文对研究开发的一种机械密封新型摩擦副材料ＷＣ－ＮｉＰ合金的摩擦磨损特性进行了研究。考察了在水润滑条件下ＷＣ－ＮｉＰ／石墨配对的摩擦性能,以及在３％ＮａＣＬ和１０％ＨＣｌ溶液中的腐蚀磨损性能。并与ＷＣ－Ｃｏ合金作了对比。结果表明：在水及３％ＮａＣｌ溶液中两种ＷＣ材料有相近的摩擦磨损特性,而在１０％ＨＣｌ溶液中ＷＣ－ＮｉＰ合金的腐蚀磨损性能则远优于ＷＣ－Ｃｏ。     

Wear and Friction Characteristics of Magnetorheological Fluid under Magnetic Field Activation

In this article, wear and friction characteristics of a magnetorheological (MR) fluid were studied under different magnetic fields. Using a pin-on-disc tribometer, the wear loss and friction coefficient were obtained with and without a magnetic field. The friction and wear of three typical materials under magnetic field were investigated at various normal loads and rotating speeds. After the wear tests, the worn surfaces of specimens were observed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) in order to investigate the wear mechanisms, and the contacting surfaces were analyzed by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) to investigate the variation of elemental composition on the worn surface. Test results showed that the MR fluid exhibits better tribological characteristics under a magnetic field compared to the case without a magnetic field. The general morphology of the MR particles and wear debris was observed to assist with the analysis of friction and wear. The SEM micrographs and EDS spectra of the worn surfaces showed that the predominant wear mechanism in the case of the steel and brass specimens was abrasive wear by asperities and MR particles on the worn surfaces, whereas a mixed wear mechanism that included adhesive wear and abrasive wear was observed in the case of the aluminum specimen.     

Wear Behavior of Aluminum Alloys at Slow Sliding Speeds

The investigated slow sliding speeds presented in this work enable the understanding of the wear behavior on aluminum alloys and could possibly facilitate the completion of the previously proposed wear mechanism map for aluminum at this slow sliding speed range. Dry sliding block-on-ring wear tests were carried out on aluminum alloys, AA5754 (Al-Mg), AA6082 (Al-Mg-Si), and AA7075 (Al-Zn-Cu), at a very slow sliding speed range (<0.01 m/s). A bearing steel ring of AISI 52100 was used as the counterbody. Tests were performed at varying contact pressures, 20, 100, and 140 MPa, and sliding speeds ranging from 0.001 to 1.5 m/s. The wear tracks and debris collected were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD), with the aim of analyzing their morphology and composition. At relatively slow sliding speeds (>0.01 m/s), the specimens exhibited a wear process placed at the mild wear regime, characterized by oxidation and delamination mechanisms of both the aluminum specimen and the steel ring. However, at very slow speed range (<0.01 m/s), an increase in the wear rate and the friction coefficient is observed for all of the aluminum alloys, thus suggesting that an alternative wear mechanism could be taking place.