Elastohydrodynamic properties of water in oil emulsions

Elastohydrodynamic (EHL) film thicknesses of emulsions have been measured in a rolling point contact using an optical interference method. Both water in oil and oil in water emulsions have been studied.For water in oil emulsions the experimental data suggest that EHL film thickness is almost independent of water concentration and also particle size distribution, although the bulk viscosity of the emulsions is heavily dependent upon these two variables. It is concluded that the EHL properties of such emulsions are determined almost entirely by the EHL properties of the pure oil.For oil in water emulsions, negligible EHL film formation was observed.     

A System-Approach to the Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication Point-Contact Problem

The classical EHL point contact problem is solved using a new “system-approach,” similar to that introduced by Houpert and Ham-rock for the line-contact problem. Introducing a body-fitted coordinate system, the troublesome free-boundary is transformed to the fixed domain. The Newton-Raphson method can then be used to determine the pressure distribution and the cavitation boundary subject to the Reynolds boundary condition. This method provides an efficient and rigorous way of solving the EHL point contact problem with the aid of a supercomputer and a promising method to deal with the transient EHL point contact problem. A typical pressure distribution and film thickness profile are presented and the minimum film thicknesses are compared with the solution of Hamrock and Dowson. The details of the cavitation boundaries for various operating parameters are discussed.     

Transient elastohydrodynamic lubrication film thickness in sliding and rolling line contacts

The contact behavior between cam and follower is greatly influenced by the kinematics and dynamics of the whole valve train system. This is the reason that both shape and thickness of the fluid film in the contact gap are mainly determined by applied loads and relative contact speeds as well as the curvatures of contacting elements. Most of the studies about lubricant film behavior between cam and follower have been performed without a consideration of transient effects in the contact gap. For the computational difficulties of transient effects, most contact conditions such as relative contacting speeds have been regarded as quasi-steady state during the whole operating cycle. In this work, in order to obtain stable convergence, a multigrid multi-level method is used for the computation of load capacity in the lubricant film. Nonlinear valve spring dynamics are also considered in the same way as Hanachi’s. From the computational results, transient EHL film thicknesses under the conditions of different contact geometries are computed for a pushrod type valve train system during an engine cycle. Several results show the squeeze film effect, which is generally not found with conventional EHL computations of the cam and follower contact. The results are also compared with those by the Dowson-Hamrock (D-H) formula, which does not consider the dynamic film effect. Without the dynamic film effect as in D-H’s formula, the minimum film thickness is highly dependent on the entraining lubricant velocity, whereas the minimum film thickness including the squeeze film effect is dependent on the applied load.     

Influence of spinning on the rolling EHL films

Spinning cannot be ignored in some elastohydrodynamically lubricated contacts. In this paper, spinning is incorporated into an elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) contact of pure rolling and its influences on EHL films are studied. Results show that with increase in spinning, the symmetry of the film shape gets lost, and the minimum film thicknesses, located respectively at the two side-lobes, decrease and show more dependence on loads. The speed indices of the film thickness at the side lobes are higher than those of the classical EHL theory predicted. Numerical work has also been carried out to clarify the experiment measurements.     

N次谐波凸轮-挺柱副的润滑特性分析

将线接触弹流润滑理论应用于发动机配气机构,计算了某N次谐波凸轮-挺柱副润滑的稳态最小膜厚、膜厚比等参数,分析了凸轮．挺柱副稳态润滑在设计转速下随凸轮转角的变化特征,比较和讨论了发动机转速变化对润滑性能的影响。结果表明,凸轮桃尖区多为部分弹流润滑状态和边界润滑,工作段其它部分多为部分弹流、完全弹流和动力润滑状态。曲轴转速提高一般情况下对增加稳态最小膜厚有利,但由此导致的载荷波动量增加对最小膜厚的稳定性不利,从而使表面摩擦和磨损的可能性增加。     

An unsteady mixed soft EHL model, with application to a rotary lip seal

A rotary lip seal usually operates with full-film lubrication. However at low speeds, such as those encountered during startup and shutdown, mixed lubrication occurs and asperities on the lip contact the shaft. To simulate this condition, a mixed soft EHL model has been constructed. The fluid mechanics of the lubricating film is described by a Reynolds equation that can handle interasperity cavitation. The bulk deformation of the lip is computed using influence coefficients, while the junctions between the asperities and the shaft are modeled as Hertzian contacts. Since the shaft is rough, the flow is unsteady and an unsteady analysis is required. The model shows how the shaft roughness affects such seal characteristics as load support, contact load ratio, contact area ratio, cavitation area ratio, reverse pumping rate and average film thickness.     

渐开线直齿圆柱齿轮等温时变非牛顿弹流润滑分析

用多重网格法 ,求得了Ree Eyring流体润滑的渐开线直齿圆柱齿轮瞬时等温弹流润滑完全数值解 ,给出了油膜压力、厚度沿啮合线随时间变化的关系 ,并与相同工况下的牛顿流体润滑的结果进行了比较。     

斜齿圆柱齿轮的热弹流润滑理论

将斜齿圆柱齿轮在某一啮合瞬时啮合线上的热弹流润滑问题近似等效为两反向圆锥滚子的准稳态热弹流润滑问题。应用多重网格法和逐列扫描法数值求解一对斜齿圆柱齿轮某啮合瞬时的准稳态热弹流润滑现象。结果表明：第一,斜齿圆柱齿轮接触线上各点的压力、膜厚、油膜温度和两齿面的温度均不相同,且温度分布的差异较明显。在接触区内,最低温升接近于零,最高温升则超过100 K。这是由于压力和膜厚的分布主要取决于沿滚子长度方向各点等效半径的分布曲线,而温度的分布则主要由沿滚子长度方向各点滑滚比的取值而定。第二,端部修形虽然可以降低端部高压和高温,但端部的压力和温度仍比中部高,膜厚比中部薄。对应到两齿面上,油膜中压力和温度较高,厚度较薄的位置最易发生点蚀和胶合破坏。     

点接触弹流润滑供油条件退化的乏油分析

在点接触弹流润滑中,如果不能及时补充新油,则接触区的供油条件会随着润滑次数而退化。分析了供油油膜厚度、中心膜厚、最小膜厚和润滑油膜压力区形成位置与润滑次数的关系。结果表明:润滑开始时,由于供油油膜厚度较大,系统处于充分供油状态;随着润滑次数的增加,有一部分油从两侧泄漏,系统逐渐转到乏油状态,供油油膜厚度、中心膜厚和最小膜厚均逐渐变小,压力区形成位置则逐渐向Hertz接触区靠近;最终供油油膜厚度、中心膜厚和最小膜厚趋于定值,压力区趋于Hertz接触区,从而达到一种稳定乏油状态。     

Shaft roughness effect on elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication of rotary lip seals: Experimentation and numerical simulation

Numerical analyses of the isothermal elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) have made considerable advances in order to identify the most important features in the successful operation of rotary lip seal, and the results have shown a good agreement with experiments.Most of the models previously published are capable of predicting the combined effects of thin film through deformed lip and rotating shaft, but they assume a smooth surface of the shaft. Although this assumption is only verified for shaft roughness much smaller than that of the seal lip, it is the best solution to avoid a transient model.First, the present study describes an experimental work that provides a basis upon which a numerical EHL model of rotary lip seal is constructed by taking into account both the shaft and lip roughness. After confirming the validity of the current model by comparing experimental with numerical results, simulations have been performed and have underlined the effect of shaft roughness amplitude and profile on the rotary lip seal performance. It is shown that for shaft roughness beyond half of the lip roughness, the seal may leak.     

Soft EHL for transversely isotropic materials

The elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) characteristics of transversely isotropic materials are investigated. A finite element method (FEM) is utilized to solve the Reynolds equation, elastic equation, and load balance equation simultaneously on a ball-on-plane equivalent model. A simplified problem related to cornea and contact lens during blinking is studied. The pressure and oil film thickness distributions, surface deformation, and friction coefficient are discussed for various material properties (Young's modulus) and operating conditions (sliding velocity and load). Results reveal that the effects of soft transversely isotropic materials on lubricating performances are significant, which are helpful to further investigate the biomechanical interactions between a keratoconic cornea and a lens during blinking.     

Quantitative elastohydrodynamic film thickness of mechanically degraded oil

The low-shear viscosities of new oil and used (degraded) oil were measured to moderately high pressure. Shear-thinning flow curves were generated over a range of shear stress important to EHL film forming. Mechanical shear degradation only affected the viscosity at low shear stress while the viscosity at high stress remained unchanged. A recently published film thickness equation for double-Newtonian shear-thinning, employing the measured rheology, predicts the surprising result that thickness of the EHL film was not changed by the degradation although the low-shear viscosities were reduced substantially. Colorimetric measurements of the film thicknesses validate the predictions. Concern over the permanent loss in viscosity due to degradation may be misplaced when addressing EHL films.     

相邻滚子间距和错位对弹流成膜性能影响的试验研究

滚动体数量会影响轴承中相邻滚动体的间距大小,而轴承制造和装配误差会造成相邻滚动体错位,这些几何位置因素会影响接触副区的回流补油和油膜成膜性能。利用三滚轮整体加载有限长线接触光弹流试验装置,在给定初始油量下,开展相邻滚子间距和错位距离对滚子弹流油膜成膜性能和补油机制的试验研究。结果发现：使用低黏度润滑油时,增加相邻滚子间距,能够提高滚子端部膜厚,但错位对滚子端部膜厚影响较小;使用高黏度润滑油时,相邻滚子间距大小只对距离端面0.25 mm较近处膜厚有影响,对距离端面1.05 mm较远处的膜厚无影响;随着错位距离的增加,距离端面0.25 mm较近处的成膜性能先增加后减小,而距离端部1.05 mm较远处的膜厚增加。     

Film thickness in point contacts under generalized Newtonian EHL conditions: Numerical and experimental analysis

The current paper contributes to the understanding of the behaviour of a smooth point EHL contact with a generalized Newtonian lubricant under pure rolling. The film thickness distribution was computed using a numerical simulation with measured rheological lubricant properties. The numerical predictions, obtained solving the generalized Reynolds equation were compared with film thicknesses measured in an optical ball-on-disc device. The numerical results correctly predict the absolute film thickness and the film thickness increase with rolling speed.     

Localized Boundary Effect on Elastohydrodynamic Lubricated Film Shape

The study aimed to determine the formation of an adsorption film at elastohydrodynamic lubricated (EHL) contacts and its effects on EHL film shape and friction. Experiments were conducted on an optical EHL test rig with surfaces of different surface energies. A new type of “abnormal” EHL film shape characterized with three dimples in the inlet of the contact was obtained in pure ball sliding experiments with long-chain polybutene. The adsorption layer was inferred to be the main cause for the “tri-dimple” phenomenon. The “tri-dimple” formation was examined. Under a fixed speed, a single inlet dimple gradually broke into three dimples with increasing number of ball rotation, and it happened with slight increase in friction force. Three zones, namely a central and two lateral zones, of the contact were classified and characterized with different levels of influence on the adsorption layer.     

Monochromatic image analysis of elastohydrodynamic lubrication film thickness by fringe intensity computation

Point contact film thickness in elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) is analyzed by image processing method for the images from an optical interferometer with monochromatic incident light. Interference between the reflected lights both on half mirrorCr coating of glass disk and on super finished ball makes circular fringes depending on the contact conditions such as sliding velocity, applied load, viscosity-pressure characteristics and viscosity of lubricant under ambient pressure. In this situation the film thickness is regarded as the difference of optical paths between those reflected lights, which make dark and bright fringes with monochromatic incident light. The film thickness is computed by numbering the dark and bright fringe orders and the intensity (gray scale image) in each fringe regime is mapped to the corresponding film thickness. In this work, we developed a measuring technique for EHL film thickness by dividing the image patterns into two typical types under the condition of monochromatic incident light. During the image processing, the captured image is converted into digitally formatted data over the contact area without any loss of the image information of interferogram and it is also interpreted with consistency regardless of the observer’ s experimental experience. It is expected that the developed image processing method will provide a valuable basis to develop the image processing technique for color fringes, which is generally used for the measurement of relatively thin films in higher resolution.     

Numerical Analysis of the Oil-Supply Condition in Isothermal Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication of Finite Line Contacts

In order to investigate the effect of oil-supply condition on the lubrication performance of machine components, such as gears and roll bearings, a full numerical solution of the isothermal finite line contact elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) problem under different oil-supply conditions was obtained. The supplied oil quantity was given with the thicknesses of layers of oil films on both solid surfaces, and an equivalent thickness of such supplied oil films was introduced. An algorithm similar to that proposed by Elrod in 1981 was developed to determine the pressure starting position automatically. The pressure field was solved with a multi-grid solver which enables the difficulty of the huge mesh differences in two directions be overcome easily. The surface deformation produced by pressure was calculated with a multilevel multi-integration method. Based on the Newtonian lubricant assumption, comparisons of solutions between the starved and fully flooded contacts have been made. Results show that the pressure starting position and the central and minimum film thicknesses vary with different oil-supply thicknesses. In addition, the influence of the thickness of the oil-supply layer, the end profile radius, the entrainment velocity, and the maximum Hertzian pressure on the starved fluid film thickness has been investigated. In conclusion, the optimum quantity of the supplied oil is very important for the discussed problem.     

点接触弹流摩擦副动特性研究

弹流油膜具有显著的弹簧、阻尼特性,对高副机械零件和系统的动特性具有重要影响。研究弹流摩擦副的动特性,揭示弹流摩擦副动力学特性的变化规律,对改进和提升整个机械系统的动力学设计具有重要意义。基于弹流润滑理论和机械振动学,建立点接触弹流摩擦副的摩擦学-动力学耦合模型,采用数值方法求解弹流摩擦副在简谐激励下的振动响应;通过简谐激励下弹流摩擦副的阻尼环识别出弹流摩擦副的刚度和阻尼,用参数控制的方法研究载荷、速度、材料参数及椭圆度等对弹流摩擦副刚度和阻尼的影响。结果表明：在研究的速度和载荷范围内,摩擦副的刚度和阻尼随载荷和椭圆度的增大而增大,随速度和材料参数的增大而减小,其中载荷对点接触EHL摩擦副的刚度和阻尼的影响最为显著,相比阻尼,摩擦副的刚度随载荷、速度和材料参数的变化幅度要大得多。在数值算例的基础上,给出弹流摩擦副的刚度和阻尼关于载荷、速度和材料参数的拟合公式。数值比较结果表明,给出的拟合公式具有满意的精度,可快速计算弹流状态下点接触摩擦副的刚度和阻尼。     

Lubricant Flow in an Elastohydrodynamic Contact Using Fluorescence

It is well-documented that parameters, such as film thickness and temperature in EHL contacts, can be measured experimentally using a range of techniques include optical interferometry, ultrasonics, capacitance and infrared emission. Considerably less is known, however, about the flow of lubricant through such contacts. Information about lubricant flow would greatly benefit the prediction of friction in machine components. This article describes initial steps to develop fluorescence as a means of observing lubricant flow. An EHL contact was produced between a steel ball and a glass disc and viewed using a fluorescence microscope. The entrained lubricant was dyed using a fluorescent species, so that when illuminated with laser light, a fluorescence intensity map could be viewed. When the contact was fully flooded with dyed lubricant, the fluorescence intensity within the contact correlated well with optical interferometric film thickness measurements under the same conditions. This suggests useful possibilities for mapping film thickness in contacts where conventional optical methods are impractical, such as between rough surfaces and within soft contacts. In order to observe how lubricant flows in an EHL contact, fluorescer-containing lubricant was placed on the out-of-contact track. The boundary between fluorescent and non-fluorescent lubricant was then entrained into the contact and the passage of the boundary through the contact was monitored.     

Analysis of contact force and thermal behaviour of lip seals

Using the Mooney-Rivlin model, the contact force and thermal behaviour of a radial lip seal are studied numerically and experimentally as a function of the interference. The numerical and experimental results on the static contact forces show good correspondence with and without the garter spring. The FEM calculated results indicate that increased interference may increase the eracking of seal material due to the maximum contact stresses close to the contacting area of the seal lip and produce local separation between the seal lip and the shaft. Also a coupled thermal-mechanical analysis method will be a useful tool to predict the contact behaviour of rubber lip seals for small values of the interference.