Particle Damage in Hertzian Contacts and Life Ratings of Rolling Bearings

Particle denting, and contamination marks found on bearing raceways, can induce stress concentrations and facilitate surface initiated fatigue. The lubricant film developed at the dent and related local surface stresses are also significant to the crack initiation mechanism. In this article, a new methodology is presented to link the micro-EHL film and related local stresses to the fatigue life of rolling bearings. The applied methodology is based on Fourier analysis of the harmonic components of the surface microgeometry to predict stresses and induced lubricant film. The application of this method to actual bearing surfaces is discussed and analyzed in relation to some existing microcontact EHL solutions. A global evaluation of the use of the method to rolling bearings dynamic load ratings is also carried out. A comparison between experimentally obtained rolling bearing life and lives predicted using the present theory indicate the global ability of the model to describe the effect of the lubrication quality on the life expectancy of rolling contacts. From this analysis, an assessment of some typical equations used in rolling bearing dynamic ratings is carried out. It is found that the degree of lubrication of the rolling contact and the cleanliness conditions of the oil are indeed significant to the prediction of the life expectancy of the bearing.     

Fatigue Life Reduction in Mixed Lubricated Elliptical Contacts

Highly loaded ball and rolling element bearings are often required to operate in the mixed elastohydrodynamic lubrication regime in which surface asperity contact occurs simultaneously during the lubrication process. Predicting performance of components operating in this regime is important as the high asperity contact pressures can significantly reduce the fatigue life of the interacting components. Rolling contact fatigue is one of the most dominant causes of failure of components operating in mixed lubrication regime. Contact fatigue begins with the initiation of microscopic fatigue cracks in the rolling contact surfaces or within the sub-surface regions due to cyclic shear stresses. Investigation of mixed lubrication effects on performance of machine components is of significant importance in order to understand and enhance their load carrying capacity. This article investigates the effects of mixed lubrication and surface roughness on machine components performance. Results from a mixed lubrication model are utilized to investigate the effects of different operating conditions on fatigue life of the components. Simple rough surfaces consisting of single hemispherical bump as well as complex rough surfaces consisting of a numerically generated 3D rough surface operating under mixed lubrication conditions are studied and results presented. The stress-based Ioannides and Harris model incorporating the fatigue limit is used to evaluate the fatigue life variation. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) technique is used to significantly reduce the time required for the computation of internal stresses.     

Experimental and Numerical Study of Micropitting Initiation in Real Rough Surfaces in a Micro-elastohydrodynamic Lubrication Regime

Micropitting is a form of surface fatigue damage that happens at the surface roughness scale in lubricated contacts in commonly used machine elements, such as gears and bearings. It occurs where the specific film thickness (ratio of smooth surface film thickness to composite surface roughness) is sufficiently low for the contacts to operate in the mixed lubrication regime, where the load is in part carried by direct asperity contacts. Micropitting is currently seen as a greater issue for gear designers than is regular pitting fatigue failure as the latter can be avoided by control of steel cleanliness. This paper describes the results of both theoretical and experimental studies of the onset of micropitting in test disks operated in the mixed lubrication regime. A series of twin disk mixed-lubrication experiments were performed in order to examine the evolution of micropitting damage during repeated cyclic loading of surface roughness asperities as they pass through the contact. Representative measurements of the surfaces used in the experimental work were then evaluated using a numerical model which combines a transient line contact micro-elastohydrodynamic lubrication (micro-EHL) simulation with a calculation of elastic sub-surface stresses. This model generated time-history of stresses within a block of material as it passes through the contact, based on the instantaneous surface contact pressure and traction at each point in the computing mesh at each timestep. This stress time-history was then used within a shear-strain-based fatigue model to calculate the cumulative damage experienced by the surface due to the loading sequence experienced during the experiments. The proposed micro-EHL model results and the experimental study were shown to agree well in terms of predicting the number of loading cycles that are required for the initial micropitting to occur.     

Mechanism of dent initiated flaking and bearing life enhancement technology under contaminated lubrication condition: Part I: Effect of tangential force on dent initiated flaking

In this paper, we have clarified experimentally the mechanism of dent initiated flaking as observed in rolling element bearings operating under contaminated lubrication conditions. A characteristic of dent initiated flaking is the initiation of cracks on the trailing edge of dents relative to the rolling direction. Based on the results of twin-disk testing and ball-on-rod rolling contact fatigue (RCF) testing conducted, we have confirmed that the crack initiation at the edge of a dent is strong influenced by the tangential force. The tangential force leads to the generation of a large tensile stress at the trailing edge of dents, which in turn leads to crack initiation.     

Mechanism of dent initiated flaking and bearing life enhancement technology under contaminated lubrication condition: Part I: Effect of tangential force on dent initiated flaking

In this paper, we have clarified experimentally the mechanism of dent initiated flaking as observed in rolling element bearings operating under contaminated lubrication conditions. A characteristic of dent initiated flaking is the initiation of cracks on the trailing edge of dents relative to the rolling direction. Based on the results of twin-disk testing and ball-on-rod rolling contact fatigue (RCF) testing conducted, we have confirmed that the crack initiation at the edge of a dent is strong influenced by the tangential force. The tangential force leads to the generation of a large tensile stress at the trailing edge of dents, which in turn leads to crack initiation.     

Effect of Slide-to-Roll Ratio on Interior Stresses Around a Dent in EHL Contacts

The present, study extends the transient EHL point contact model and subsurface stress field calculation model to examine the influence of a surface dent on interior stresses in an EHL point contact under various slide-to-roll conditions. Results revealed that under the pure rolling condition the effect of a surface dent on the stresses is quite negligible. The presence of a shallow surface dent is unlikely to reduce the contact fatigue, life so long as pure rolling motion and good lubrication conditions are maintained. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said of the contact if it is operating in the boundary lubrication regime.

When sliding was introduced, the surface indentation generated significantly high pressure spikes with a strong directional preference. These high-pressure spikes cause severe stress concentrations either below the trailing edge of the dent, if it moves faster than the opposing surface, or below the leading edge of the dent, if it moves slower than the opposing surface. The maximum von Mises stress moved close to the surface and significantly increased in value as compared to the smooth surface solution. For the case of simple sliding, the maximum von Mises stress is even greater than the value calculated for the boundary lubrication case.

In regard to maximum tensile principle stresses, the presence of a dent increased the stresses only marginally over the smooth surface solutions. It is unlikely that surface indentation would significantly reduce the contact fatigue life due to Mode 1-type crack initiation.     

Effect of surface texturing on mixed lubricated non-conformal contacts

The behaviour of surface texturing based on shallow micro-dents was observed within mixed lubricated non-conformal contacts and compared with results obtained under thin film elastohydrodynamic conditions. Thin film colorimetric interferometry was used to observe the changes in lubrication film thickness. It was found that lubricant emitted by micro-dents could effectively lift off the real roughness features that provided an increase in average but also the local minimum film thicknesses. On the contrary to smooth contact conditions no film thickness reduction is obvious either downstream or upstream the micro-dent. The possible beneficial effect of surface texturing on mixed lubricated contact was checked through the qualitative wear test. It confirmed that an array of shallow micro-dents reduced asperity interactions of rubbing surfaces. Moreover, the effect of micro-dents on rolling contact fatigue was also considered in this study. It has been shown that individual dents would have to be much deeper compared to those used in surface texturing experiments to cause reduction in contact fatigue life. It can be suggested from the obtained results that properly designed surface texturing could help to increase the separation of rubbing surfaces under mixed lubrication conditions.     

Contact Fatigue Analysis of a Dented Surface in a Dry Elastic–Plastic Circular Point Contact

The present article proposes a methodology for the computational analysis of damage induced in the vicinity of dents in a dry circular point contact under repeated rolling. The failure risk is evaluated through the use of the Dang Van multiaxial fatigue criterion. The dent is a typical surface defect encountered in rolling element bearings when operating in contaminated environments. It is usually created by a solid particle not removed by seals or filters when passing through an EHL conjunction. Since local plasticity occurs when the debris is first entrapped between the contacting surfaces, and later when the resulting dents are subjected to moving contact load, the elastic–plastic behavior of the material should be captured by the model. First, the dent shape and the subsurface stress and strain fields produced by the presence of a spherical particle are obtained by the finite element method. Second, the rolling of the load over the surface defect is simulated using a semi-analytical elastic–plastic code. The simulations are carried out for two different debris materials, both ductile but one significantly softer than the contacting surfaces, i.e., made of stainless steel 316L, the other one being made of bearing steel AISI 52100 similar to the contacting surfaces. The dent shape and initial stress and strain states are first presented. Subsequent stress and strain states after a few rolling cycles are then presented. Finally the effects of the coefficient of friction, presence of residual stress, and contact load magnitude are highlighted.     

An Experimental and Theoretical Study of Hybrid Bearing Micropitting Performance under Reduced Lubrication

Hybrid bearings—that is, bearings with ceramic rolling elements and steel rings—are often used in applications with reduced (i.e., boundary or mixed) lubrication conditions. The mechanisms by which hybrid bearings perform significantly better than full-steel ones in these cases are so far unclear, although a number of published works have shown experimental results in which appreciable performance benefits were obtained by the use of hybrid bearings under boundary or mixed lubrication. In this article, the reduced lubrication performance of hybrid rolling contacts, versus full-steel ones, is studied in detail by means of rolling bearing fatigue experiments and a theoretical micropitting model. It is found that the large improvement in surface fatigue resistance of hybrid contacts cannot be explained solely on the basis of the unavoidable differences in some of the roughness parameters existing between the full-steel and hybrid contacts. It is also necessary to take into account a considerable reduction in the effective boundary friction coefficient of the hybrid contact. In the numerical micropitting simulations it was found that the boundary friction coefficient of a hybrid contact must be about two times lower than that for the corresponding full-steel contact, in order to be able to predict the experimental observations reasonably well. A similar ratio of the boundary friction coefficients was obtained in a number of dedicated tests, thus confirming the results of the micropitting model. The mechanisms of the strong micropitting resistance of hybrid bearings under reduced lubrication conditions are discussed in detail, shedding new light on the operational tribology and performance capabilities of bearings with rolling elements made of silicon nitride ceramics.     

A deterministic model for line-contact partial elastohydrodynamic lubrication

A deterministic model for partial elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) is presented in this paper. The modelling methodology adopts some of the concepts used in the stochastic modelling of partial EHL and some of the procedures for deterministic calculation of asperity pressures. The model is shown to be capable of simulating the basic process of asperity interaction and solid-to-solid contact within an EHL conjunction of rough surfaces. Deterministic results of transient partial EHL in line contacts are obtained when one pair or multiple pairs of asperities collide. The model may help to gain a fundamental understanding of the transient behaviour of asperity interactions in lubricated concentrated contacts of rough surfaces. Asperity pressures may be calculated more accurately than the conventional analyses under dry and static contact conditions. The work represents a first attempt in deterministic modelling of tribo-contacts operating in the mixed regime of micro-EHL and boundary lubrication. Future work will aim at developing more realistic models incorporating factors such as three-dimensional asperity contacts, asperity plastic deformation, thermal effects and the effect of tribo-chemistry.     

Elastohydrodynamic Film Thickness Measurements of Artificially Produced Surface Dents and Grooves

Elastohydrodynamic (EHD) film thickness measurements using optical interferometry have been made of artificially produced dents and grooves under rolling and sliding conditions. These measurements are compared to stylus traces of the dent and groove profiles to determine the local deformation associated with micro-EHD pressure generation. The surface geometry associated with the dents and grooves is seen to become intimately involved in the lubrication process itself, creating local pressure variations that substantially deform the local surface geometry, particularly under sliding conditions. The rolling results have implications concerning surface initiated fatigue and the sliding results show clearly the EHD surface interactions that must occur prior to scuffing failure.     

Effect of surface topography on mixed lubrication film formation during start up under rolling/sliding conditions

The start up operation of mixed lubricated contacts represents one of the transient conditions that bring the risk of the surface damage because of asperities interactions. This paper focuses on the effects of both artificially produced and real roughness features on mixed lubrication film formation during start up of non-conformal contacts operated under rolling/sliding conditions. Chromatic interferograms captured during start up enabled the detailed changes in lubrication film caused by surface features to be observed. The observation of the effects of surface dents artificially produced on the ball surface helped to better understand the behaviour of real surface topography. It was found that the presence of shallow surface features can help to separate mixed lubricated rubbing surfaces more efficiently than it could be suggested from the results obtained with smooth surfaces. Lubricant emitted from surface features appears to spread more easily within the mixed lubricated contact because of local decrease of pressure in the vicinity of real surface features. Conversely, high pressure within smooth contacts restricts the migration of lubricant emitted from surface pits much more. It can be suggested from the results obtained that the properly designed topography of the rubbing surfaces can help to reduce the asperities interactions under transient operational conditions.     

Effect of surface texturing on rolling contact fatigue within mixed lubricated non-conformal rolling/sliding contacts

The rolling contact fatigue (RCF) life of highly loaded machine components is significantly influenced by the surface roughness features so that there is a continuous effort to design the topography of rubbing surfaces to enhance lubrication efficiency and prolong the operation of machine components. It can be suggested from the recent experimental results that lubricant emitted from shallow micro-dents could effectively lift off the real roughness features and reduce the asperities interactions within rolling/sliding mixed lubricated contacts. Thereby the additional supply of lubricant from surface features could help to reduce the risk of surface damage through the reduction of the interaction of rubbing surfaces during start-up or starvation. However, the introduction of such roughness features into the rubbing surfaces of highly loaded non-conformal contacts should consider not only the effects on lubrication film thickness but also on RCF.That is why this study is focused on the effects of surface texturing on RCF within non-conformal rolling/sliding contacts operated under mixed lubrication conditions. The principal task has been whether possible beneficial effect on film thickness is not accompanied by the reduction in RCF life. Textures with various sizes of micro-dents and their arrangement within the contacts have been considered. It has been found that results obtained with textured surfaces have exhibited no obvious reduction in RCF. Conversely, some increase in RCF using textured surfaces was observed that could be attributed to the positive contribution of micro-dents working as lubricant micro-reservoirs that reduce asperities interactions. Nevertheless, further experiments are necessary to confirm this possible beneficial contribution of surface texturing on RCF.     

基于修正L-P模型的轮毂轴承载荷分布与弯曲疲劳寿命分析

以第三代轮毂轴承为研究对象,推导了弯矩作用下滚动体与内滚道、外滚道的接触变形与接触载荷,提出了更为准确的接触载荷分布计算模型,分析了不同工况下轮毂轴承内部接触载荷和接触角的周向分布规律。在轮毂轴承内部载荷分布的一次修正基础上,考虑不同位置角的滚道材料和滚动体的接触疲劳,利用乘积定律进行统计处理,得到了第三代轮毂轴承疲劳寿命的修正L-P模型。结合ISO281—2007寿命修正计算方法,针对润滑现象进行二次修正,得到了经过润滑修正的第三代轮毂轴承疲劳寿命模型。利用旋转弯曲疲劳试验机进行了轴承的弯曲疲劳试验,试验结果显示,该疲劳寿命模型计算得到的理论值与试验值的误差在10%以内,验证了模型的正确性。     

舰船用水润滑轴承微观界面润滑机理研究

针对水润滑轴承微观界面润滑状态和润滑机理存在的不清楚、不明朗等问题,开展微凹痕对轴承微观界面润滑机理影响的研究。在建立单一微凹痕内部流体动力学模型的基础上,研究微凹痕内部涡流结构变化特性,分析微凹痕内部流场动力学特征,讨论形貌特征参数与润滑性能的变化规律,证明流体动力学特性随表面形貌的演化规律,验证微凹痕对轴承微观界面润滑机理的影响规律,从而提出微尺度下水润滑轴承润滑理论,并从微观层面探究粗糙峰与轴承润滑状态转变之间的关系,进而提出判断润滑状态转变的微观尺度标准。结果表明,微动压效应、微空化效应、微惯性效应三者共同构成水润滑轴承微观界面的润滑机理,大量微凹痕累积进而可以增强轴承承载能力、降低摩擦功耗。     

Effect of shot peening on rolling contact fatigue and lubricant film thickness within mixed lubricated non-conformal rolling/sliding contacts

The effect of shot peening on rolling contact fatigue (RCF) and lubricant film thickness within non-conformal rolling/sliding contacts operated under mixed lubrication conditions was observed in this study. Rolling contact fatigue tests and film thickness measurements were carried out using specimens with modified surface topography by shot peening process using glass beads having diameter between 0.07 and 0.11 mm. It has been shown that the effect of shot peening on RCF has no positive effect even if shot peened surface of the roller exhibited somewhat higher hardness in contrast to the grounded surface. The reduction of RCF may be caused due to asperities interactions because after shot peening the surface roughness of the roller was increased. Film thickness measurements confirmed that the contact is realized actually only between asperity peaks of shot peened ball and smooth disc.Conversely, no negative effect on RCF was observed when the shot peened surface of the roller was polished. The polish of asperity peaks causes the creation of lands and micro-cavities, which may be employed as lubricant micro-reservoirs. From film thickness measurements it has been observed that lubricant emitted by shallow micro-cavities can provide the local increase in lubrication film thickness, which thereby reduces asperities interactions. Similar results were obtained for start-up conditions where the squeeze lubricant enlarges film thickness and reduces surface interactions.From the obtained results, it can be suggested that properly designed surface topography modification could help to increase the efficiency of lubrication films leading to the enhancement of contact fatigue life of non-conformal mixed lubricated rolling/sliding contacts.     

Experimental Study of the Smoothing Effect of a Ceramic Rolling Element on a Bearing Raceway in Contaminated Lubrication

The effects of steel and ceramic rolling elements on protrusions from the raceway of a bearing were experimentally investigated. Such protrusions, which are normally caused by solid contaminants in the lubricating oil, create stress concentrations and lead to a reduction in the rolling contact fatigue life of the bearing. To compare the over-rolling effects of steel and ceramic rollers, experiments with steel discs with artificial dents on the surfaces were performed using a modified twin-disc machine. The results show that ceramic rollers can reduce the height of the protruded edge of an artificial dent more than steel rollers, which means that they are more effective in smoothing a damaged surface. The stresses at the contact were calculated by finite element analysis based on the deformed profile of the dented surface. The reduction in the stress level due to the smoothing effect of ceramic rollers is greater than that of steel rollers. According to the Lundberg–Palmgren bearing fatigue model, that smoothing ensures a significantly longer rolling contact fatigue life for a bearing. To put the idea into practice, a rolling ball bearing with two of its nine steel balls replaced with silicon nitride balls (referred to as a “partial hybrid bearing”) was run, together with a full steel bearing of the same model, on a bearing tester in a highly contaminated lubrication condition. The results show that the partial hybrid bearing suffers from less damage in terms of wear. The post-experiment examination of the damaged surface of the bearing raceway found that the surface of the partial hybrid bearing was smoother than that of the full steel bearing. This reveals the smoothing effect of the rolling ceramic element on the contaminant-damaged bearing surface.     

Effects of Surface Roughness on Point Contact EHL

The effects of orientation of surface roughness, entrainment (rolling) velocity, and slide/roll ratio on micro-elastohydrodynamic lubrication (micro-EHL) are investigated under pointcontact conditions using the optical interferometry technique. Long bumps with constant height and wavelength produced artificially on the surface of a highly polished steel ball are used as a model roughness. It is shown that the asperities are elastically deformed and the magnitude depends on the film factor A, defined by the ratio of the central film thickness based on smooth surfaces to the composite surface roughness, as well as the surface kinematic conditions and the orientation of the asperities. It is also found that a thin or thick oil film formed at the inlet of the contact by a moving rough surface travels through the contact region at a speed very close to the average speed of the contacting surfaces. The possible mechanism is discussed.     

Effect of real longitudinal surface roughness on lubrication film formation within line elastohydrodynamic contact

In many applications (e.g. roller, barrel or needle bearings) surface features exhibit longitudinal alignment to the direction of motion. These features are produced by surface finishing techniques in the circumferential direction and are associated with line or very wide elliptical contact geometries. In such a case, the contact length in the direction of motion is considerably shorter comparing its width and the effect of a longitudinal roughness could significantly influence the lubrication film formation. Recent experimental studies have indicated less severe effect of a longitudinal roughness on lubrication film formation in the comparisons with that observed with transversely orientated roughness caused by the inlet perturbation. Nevertheless, these experimental studies have been focused on the behaviour of artificially produced asperities within a circular contact. The quantitative experimental study of longitudinal real surface roughness within a line contact has not been realized yet. That is why, in this study, the line contact formed between a steel tapered roller and glass disc is observed within an optical test rig and the effects of real surface roughness on lubrication film formation are studied. Experiments carried out under pure rolling conditions have shown that the depth is the key parameter that influences the effect on the film thickness. If the roughness features are shallow, the lubrication film shape within the contact follows the shape of the surface closely. However, the groove having only about 800 nm in depth divided the line contact into two parts that behave as two separate line contacts. Such an effect can increase the risk of the wear of rubbing surfaces as the lubrication film thickness between the real machine components can be significantly lower than expected.     

Changes in the stress field in the elastohydrodynamic contact zone due to some operating factors and their possible role in the rolling contact fatigue of cylindrical surfaces

A theoretical analysis has been carried out of changes in the stress field in the elastohydrodynamic contact zone of cylindrical surfaces due to operating variables. Their possible role in rolling contact fatigue has been assessed by accelerated rolling contact fatigue tests. The results show that changes of the elastohydrodynamic pressure distribution in the contact zone associated with increase of the viscosity-velocity parameter induce considerable changes in the stress field in the contact zone. The poor correlation of rolling contact fatigue life with material effects according to elastohydrodynamic theory and the considerable changes in rolling contact fatigue life due to lubrication effects suggests that the explanation lies outside elastohydrodynamic theory and possibly in the theory of asperity lubrication.