Effect of NaCl on the biofilm formation by foodborne pathogens

This study was designed to evaluate the effect of NaCl on the biofilm formation of Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella boydii, and Salmonella Typhimurium. The biofilm cells were cultured in media containing different NaCl concentrations (0% to 10%) for 10 d of incubation at 37 °C using a 24-well polystyrene microtiter plate, collected by swabbing methods, and enumerated using plate count method. The attachment and detachment kinetic patterns were estimated according to the modified Gompertz model. The cell surface hydrophobicity and auto-aggregation were observed at different NaCl concentrations. Most strains showed 2 distinctive phases at lower than 6% NaCl, while the numbers of adhered cells gradually increased throughout the incubation period at 4% to 10% NaCl. At 0% NaCl, the numbers of adhered L. monocytogenes, S. aureus, S. boydii, and S. Typhimurium cells rapidly increased up to 7.04, 6.47, 6.39, and 7.27 log CFU/cm(2), respectively, within 4 d of incubation. The maximum growth rate (k(A)) and specific growth rate (μ(A)) of adherent pathogenic cells were decreased with increasing NaCl concentration. Noticeable decline in the numbers of adherent cells was observed at low concentration levels of NaCl (<2%). The adherence abilities of foodborne pathogens were influenced by the physicochemical surface properties. The hydrophobicity and auto-aggregation enhanced the biofilm formation during the incubation periods. Therefore, this study could provide useful information to better understand the adhesion and detachment capability of foodborne pathogens on food contact surfaces.     

Radiation processing to ensure safety of minimally processed carrot (Daucus carota) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus): optimization of dose for the elimination of Salmonella Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes

Minimally processed vegetables are in demand, because they offer convenience to consumers. However, these products are often unsafe because of possible contamination with pathogens, such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Shigella species. Therefore, this study was carried out to optimize the radiation dose necessary to ensure the safety of precut carrot and cucumber. Decimal reduction doses (D-values) of Salmonella Typhimurium MTCC 98 were ca. 0.164 kGy in carrot samples and 0.178 kGy in cucumber samples. D-values of Listeria monocytogenes were determined to be 0.312 and 0.345 kGy in carrot and cucumber samples, respectively. Studies of inoculated, packaged, minimally processed carrot and cucumber samples showed that treatment with a 1-kGy dose of gamma radiation eliminated up to 4 log CFU/g of Salmonella Typhimurium and 3 log CFU/g of L. monocytogenes. However, treatment with a 2-kGy dose was necessary to eliminate these pathogens by 5 log CFU/g. Storage studies showed that both Salmonella Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes were able to grow at 10 degrees C in inoculated control samples. Neither of these pathogens could be recovered from radiation-processed samples after storage for up to 8 days.     

Stability of electrolyzed oxidizing water and its efficacy against cell suspensions of Salmonella typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes

Electrolyzed oxidizing (EO) water has proved to be effective against foodborne pathogens attached to cutting boards and poultry surfaces and against spoilage organisms on vegetables; however, its levels of effectiveness against Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella Typhimurium in cell suspensions have not been compared with those of other treatments. In this study, the oxidation reduction potentials (ORPs), chlorine concentrations, and pHs of acidic and basic EO water were monitored for 3 days at 4 and 25 degrees C after generation. There were no differences between the pHs or ORPs of acidic and basic EO waters stored at 4 or 25 degrees C. However, the free chlorine concentration in acidic EO water stored at 4 degrees C increased after 24 h. In contrast, the free chlorine concentration in acidic EO water stored at 25 degrees C decreased after one day. Cell suspensions of Salmonella Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes were treated with distilled water, chlorinated water (20 ppm), acidified chlorinated water (20 ppm, 4.5 pH), acidic EO water (EOA), basic EO water (EOB), or acidic EO water that was "aged" at 4 degrees C for 24 h (AEOA) for up to 15 min at either 4 or 25 degrees C. The largest reductions observed were those following treatments carried out at 25 degrees C. EOA and AEOA treatments at both temperatures significantly reduced Salmonella Typhimurium populations by > 8 log10 CFU/ml. EOA and AEOA treatments effectively reduced L. monocytogenes populations by > 8 log10 CFU/ml at 25degrees C. These results demonstrate the stability of EO water under different conditions and that EO water effectively reduced Salmonella Typhimurium and L. monocytogenes populations in cell suspensions.     

Influence of catfish skin mucus on trisodium phosphate inactivation of attached Salmonella Typhimurium,Edwardsiella tarda,and Listeria monocytogenes

This study examined the antimicrobial effectiveness of trisodium phosphate (TSP) on Edwardsiella tarda, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella Typhimurium attached to catfish skin with and without mucus. Salmonella Typhimurium and E. tarda attached more readily to catfish skin than did L monocytogenes. At high inoculum levels (10(7) CFU/ml), TSP treatments (at 2 to 6%) for 10 min reduced bacterial counts of E. tarda by >2.5 to >3.3 log10 CFU per skin sample for firmly attached cells and by 3.5 to 3.6 log10 CFU per skin sample for loosely attached cells. Counts of L. monocytogenes declined by 0.6 to >1.8 log10 CFU per skin sample for firmly attached cells and by 1.2 to 2.2 log10 CFU per skin sample for loosely attached cells. Counts of Salmonella Typhimurium were reduced by 3.6 to >3.8 log10 CFU per skin sample for firmly attached cells and by 3.5 to >3.8 log10 CFU per skin sample for loosely attached cells. Overall, counts of firmly attached bacteria on TSP-treated skins with mucus were higher than counts on skin without mucus. Firmly attached L. monocytogenes was more resistant to TSP than was firmly attached Salmonella Typhimurium or E. tarda. The presence of mucus on skins slightly decreased the antimicrobial effect of TSP Significant (P < 0.05) reduction in the numbers of all three bacteria can be achieved by treatment with 6% TSP for 10 min.     

Growth and survival of foodborne pathogens in beer

This work aimed to assess the growth and survival of four foodborne pathogens (Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus) in beer. The effects of ethanol, pH, and storage temperature were investigated for the gram-negative pathogens (E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium), whereas the presence of hops ensured that the gram-positive pathogens (L. monocytogenes and S. aureus) were rapidly inactivated in alcohol-free beer. The pathogens E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Typhimurium could not grow in the mid-strength or full-strength beers, although they could survive for more than 30 days in the mid-strength beer when held at 4°C. These pathogens grew rapidly in the alcohol-free beer; however, growth was prevented when the pH of the alcohol-free beer was lowered from the "as received" value of 4.3 to 4.0. Pathogen survival in all beers was prolonged at lowered storage temperatures.     

Pasteurization of milk: the heat inactivation kinetics of milk-borne dairy pathogens under commercial-type conditions of turbulent flow

This is the first study to report kinetic data on the survival of a range of significant milk-borne pathogens under commercial-type pasteurization conditions. The most heat-resistant strain of each of the milk-borne pathogens Staphylococcus aureus, Yersinia enterocolitica, pathogenic Escherichia coli, Cronobacter sakazakii (formerly known as Enterobacter sakazakii), Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella was selected to obtain the worst-case scenario in heat inactivation trials using a pilot-plant-scale pasteurizer. Initially, approximately 30 of each species were screened using a submerged coil unit. Then, UHT milk was inoculated with the most heat-resistant pathogens at ~10(7)/mL and heat treated in a pilot-plant-scale pasteurizer under commercial-type conditions of turbulent flow for 15s over a temperature range from 56 to 66°C and at 72°C. Survivors were enumerated on nonselective media chosen for the highest efficiency of plating of heat-damaged bacteria of each of the chosen strains. The mean log(10) reductions and temperatures of inactivation of the 6 pathogens during a 15-s treatment were Staph. aureus >6.7 at 66.5°C, Y. enterocolitica >6.8 at 62.5°C, pathogenic E. coli >6.8 at 65°C, C. sakazakii >6.7 at 67.5°C, L. monocytogenes >6.9 at 65.5°C, and Salmonella ser. Typhimurium >6.9 at 61.5°C. The kinetic data from these experiments will be used by the New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry to populate the quantitative risk assessment model being developed to investigate the risks to New Zealand consumers from pasteurized, compared with nonpasteurized, milk and milk products.     

Adhesive and chemokine stimulatory properties of potentially probiotic Lactobacillus strains

Five Lactobacillus plantarum strains and two Lactobacillus johnsonii strains, stemming either from African traditionally fermented milk products or children's feces, were investigated for probiotic properties in vitro. The relationship between the hydrophobic-hydrophilic cell surface and adhesion ability to HT29 intestinal epithelial cells was investigated, and results indicated that especially the L. johnsonii strains, which exhibited both hydrophobic and hydrophilic surface characteristics, adhered well to HT29 cells. Four L. plantarum and two L. johnsonii strains showed high adherence to HT29 cells, generally higher than that of the probiotic control strain Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG. Most strains with high adhesion ability also showed high autoaggregation ability. The two L. johnsonii strains coaggregated well with the intestinal pathogens Listeria monocytogenes Scott A, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium ATCC 14028. The L. plantarum BFE 1685 and L. johnsonii 6128 strains furthermore inhibited the adhesion of at least two of these intestinal pathogens in coculture with HT29 cells in a strain-dependent way. These two potential probiotic strains also significantly increased interleukin-8 (IL-8) chemokine production by HT29 cells, although modulation of other cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6, IL-10, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta), did not occur. Altogether, our results suggested that L. plantarum BFE 1685 and L. johnsonii BFE 6128 showed good adherence, coaggregated with pathogens, and stimulated chemokine production of intestinal epithelial cells, traits that may be considered promising for their development as probiotic strains.     

Sensitization of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria to jenseniin G by sublethal injury

Jenseniin G, a bacteriocin produced by Propionibacterium thoenii P126, is active against related propionibacteria and some lactic acid bacteria and is sporostatic to botulinal spores. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of sublethal stress on jenseniin G activity. Bacillus cereus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella Typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, Staphylococcus aureus, and Yersinia enterocolitica were subjected to temperature, acid, and osmotic stresses in the presence of jenseniin G. The bacteriocin reduced the viability of sublethally injured cultures, although the extent of reduction varied with strain and treatment. E. faecalis was the most sensitive to temperature stress; no reduction of viable counts occurred in the absence of jenseniin G, and a 1.5-log reduction occurred in the presence of jenseniin G. B. cereus, L. monocytogenes, and S. aureus were more sensitive to jenseniin G when exposed to heat stress than when exposed to cold stress, whereas E. coli, Salmonella Typhimurium, and S. flexneri were more sensitive to jenseniin G when exposed to cold stress than when exposed to heat stress. When comparing an acid stress test alone to a combination of acid stress and jenseniin G, E. faecalis and L. monocytogenes showed the greatest sensitivities with 4.87- and 2.82-log reductions, respectively, after 7 days. All cultures except for S. aureus were adversely affected by the combination of salt stress and jenseniin G. Salmonella Typhimurium showed the greatest sensitivity to salt stress with jenseniin G (a 1.54-log reduction at day 7) when compared to salt stress alone (a 0.55-log reduction at day 7). Jenseniin G, like bacteriocins produced by other gram-positive species, has broader activity against stressed organisms.     

Interactions between high pressure homogenization and antimicrobial activity of lysozyme and lactoperoxidase

It was the objective of this work to evaluate the effect of high pressure homogenization on the activity of antimicrobial enzymes such as lysozyme and lactoperoxidase against a selected group of Gram positive and Gram negative species inoculated in skim milk. Lactobacillus helveticus, Lactobacillus plantarum and Listeria monocytogenes were the most pressure resistant species while Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas putida, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris and Salmonella enteritidis were found to be very sensitive to the hyperbaric treatment. The enzyme addition enhanced the instantaneous pressure efficacy on almost all the considered species as indicated by their instantaneous viability loss following the treatment. Moreover, the combination of the enzyme and high pressure homogenization significantly affected the recovery and growth dynamics of several of the considered species. Although L. monocytogenes was slightly sensitive to pressure, the combination of the two stress factors induced a significant viability loss within 3 h and an extension of lag phases in skim milk during incubation at 37 degrees C. The hypothesis formulated in this work is that the interaction of high pressure homogenization and lysozyme or lactoperoxidase is associated to conformational modifications of the two proteins with a consequent enhancement of their activity. This hypothesis is supported by the experimental results also regarding the increased antimicrobial activity against L. plantarum of the previously pressurised lysozyme with respect to that of the native enzyme.     

Survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella enteritidis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes in Kimchi

The survival of gram-positive and gram-negative foodborne pathogens in both commercial and laboratory-prepared kimchi (a traditional fermented food widely consumed in Japan) was investigated. It was found that Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Enteritidis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes could survive in both commercial and laboratory-prepared kimchi inoculated with these pathogens and incubated at 10 degrees C for 7 days. However, when incubation was prolonged, the S. aureus level decreased rapidly from the initial inoculum level to the minimum detectable level within 12 days, whereas Salmonella Enteritidis and L. monocytogenes took 16 days to reach similar levels in commercial kimchi. On the other hand, E. coli O157:H7 remained at high levels throughout the incubation period. For laboratory-prepared kimchi, the S. aureus level decreased rapidly from the initial inoculum level to the minimum detectable level within 12 days, and L. monocytogenes took 20 days to reach a similar level. E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella Enteritidis remained at high levels throughout the incubation period. The results of this study suggest that the contamination of kimchi with E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella Enteritidis, S. aureus, or L. monocytogenes at any stage of production or marketing could pose a potential risk.     

Spread of bacterial pathogens during preparation of freshly squeezed orange juice

To study the potential of three bacterial pathogens to cross-contaminate orange juice during extraction, normal operation conditions during juice preparation at food service establishments were simulated. The spread of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Listeria monocytogenes from inoculated oranges to work surfaces and to the final product was determined. The transference of these three bacterial pathogens to orange juice made from uninoculated oranges with the use of contaminated utensils was also studied. Fresh oranges were inoculated with a marker strain of rifampicin-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium, E. coli O157:H7, or L. monocytogenes. Final pathogen levels in juice were compared as a function of the use of electric or mechanical juice extractors to squeeze orange juice from inoculated oranges. Pathogen populations on different contact surfaces during orange juice extraction were determined on sulfite-phenol red-rifampicin plates for Salmonella Typhimurium and E. coli O157:H7 and on tryptic soy agar supplemented with 0.1 g of rifampicin per liter for L. monocytogenes. After inoculation, the average pathogen counts for the orange rind surface were 2.3 log10 CFU/cm2 for Salmonella Typhimurium, 3.6 log10 CFU/cm2 for E. coli O157:H7, and 4.4 log10 CFU/cm2 for L. monocytogenes. This contamination was spread over all utensils used in orange juice squeezing. Mean pathogen counts for the cutting board, the knife, and the extractor ranged from -0.3 to 2.1 log10 CFU/cm2, and the juice contained 1.0 log10 CFU of Salmonella Typhimurium per ml, 2.3 log10 CFU of E. coli O157:H7 per ml, and 2.7 log10 CFU of L. monocytogenes per ml. Contact with contaminated surfaces resulted in the presence of all pathogens in orange juice made from uninoculated oranges. These results give emphasis to the importance of fresh oranges as a source of pathogens in orange juice.     

Reduction of bacteria on pork carcasses associated with chilling method

In addition to reducing the temperature of pork carcasses immediately after slaughter and before fabrication, blast chilling (snap chill) or conventional chilling can reduce bacterial populations associated with fresh meats. However, there is little information on bacteria survival resulting from the freeze or chill injury of meat products. In this study, porcine fecal slurries with and without pathogens (Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Campylobacter coli) were inoculated onto skin-on and skin-off pork surfaces and subjected to industry-specific blast or conventional chilling conditions. A thin agar layer method was used for the recovery of freeze- or chill-injured cells. Test results indicated that there were no statistically significant (P > 0.05) differences between blast and conventional chilling treatments with respect to the reduction of high and low inoculation levels of mesophilic aerobic bacteria, total coliforms, or Escherichia coli on either skin-on or skin-off surfaces. Chilling treatments did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) with respect to their ability to reduce low (3 log10 CFU/cm2) levels of L. monocytogenes and Salmonella Typhimurium. However, C. coli was reduced to undetectable levels, even after enrichment, on pork surfaces inoculated with low levels (3 log10 CFU/cm2) and subjected to blast chilling. Blast and conventional chilling treatments were more effective against all pathogenic bacterial populations when pork surfaces where inoculated at high levels (5 log10 CFU/cm2). The effects of chilling techniques on microbial populations could provide pork processors with an additional intervention for pork slaughter or information to modify and/or improve the chilling process. The information obtained from this study has the potential to serve as a means of producing a microbiologically safer product.     

Effects of pulsed electric fields on pathogenic microorganisms of major concern in fluid foods: a review

Pathogenic microorganisms such as Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Campylobacter jejuni have been implicated in foodborne diseases and outbreaks worldwide. These bacteria have been associated with the consumption of fresh fruit juices, milk, and dairy products, which are foodstuff, highly demanded by consumers in retails and supermarkets. Nowadays, consumers require high quality, fresh-like, and safe foods. Pulsed electric field (PEF) is a non-thermal preservation method, able to inactivate pathogenic microorganisms without significant loss of the organoleptic and nutritional properties of food. The PEF treatment effectiveness to destroy bacteria such as Listeria innocua, E. coli, Salmonella Typhimurium, E. coli O157:H7 and E. coli 8739 at pasteurization levels (> or = 5.0 log(10) cycles) in some fluid foods was reported. However, data on the inactivation of some microorganisms such as Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Campylobacter jejuni in fluid foods by PEF processing is very limited. Therefore, future works should be focused toward the inactivation of these pathogenic bacteria in real foods.     

Bioprotection of Golden Delicious apples and Iceberg lettuce against foodborne bacterial pathogens by lactic acid bacteria

Lactic acid bacteria were isolated from fresh vegetables and fruit and its ability to inhibit the growth of foodborne human pathogens (Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhimurium, and Staphylococcus aureus) was tested using the agar spot assay. Eighteen isolates showed a strong antagonistic capacity and were further characterised and identified using 16S rDNA sequencing and API 50CH. Most of them pertained to Leuconostoc spp. and Lactobacillus plantarum, and a few corresponded to Weissella spp. and Lactococcus lactis. Growth and efficacy of control of foodborne pathogen test bacteria by selected strains were tested in wounded Golden Delicious apples and Iceberg lettuce leaf cuts. The strains grew on the substrates and did not cause negative effects on the general aspect of tissues of apple or lettuce. Treatment of apple wounds and lettuce cuts with the antagonistic strains reduced the cell count of S. typhimurium and E .coli by 1 to 2 log cfu/wound or g, whereas the growth of L. monocytogenes was completely inhibited. Results support the potential use of lactic acid bacteria as bioprotective agents against foodborne human pathogens in ready-to-eat fresh fruit and vegetable products.     

Comparison of the attachment of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium, and Pseudomonas fluorescens to lettuce leaves

Attachment of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Pseudomonas fluorescens on iceberg lettuce was evaluated by plate count and confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM). Attachment of each microorganism (approximately 10(8) CFU/ml) on the surface and the cut edge of lettuce leaves was determined. E. coli O157:H7 and L. monocytogenes attached preferentially to cut edges, while P. fluorescens attached preferentially to the intact surfaces. Differences in attachment at the two sites were greatest with L. monocytogenes. Salmonella Typhimurium attached equally to the two sites. At the surface, P. fluorescens attached in greatest number, followed by E. coli O157:H7, L. monocytogenes, and Salmonella Typhimurium. Attached microorganisms on lettuce were stained with fluorescein isothiocyanate and visualized by CSLM. Images at the surface and the cut edge of lettuce confirmed the plate count data. In addition, microcolony formation by P. fluorescens was observed on the lettuce surface. Some cells of each microorganism at the cut edge were located within the lettuce tissues, indicating that penetration occurred from the cut edge surface. The results of this study indicate that different species of microorganisms attach differently to lettuce structures, and CSLM can be successfully used to detect these differences.     

Antibacterial activity of a chitooligosaccharide mixture prepared by cellulase digestion of shrimp chitosan and its application to milk preservation

The antibacterial activity of a chitooligosaccharide mixture prepared by digestion of shrimp chitosan with cellulase at 50 degrees C for 14 h was evaluated. Sugars with 1 to 8 degrees of polymer (DP) were found in this chitooligosaccharide mixture, and the weight percentage of sugars with DP > or = 6 was 44.3%. Minimal lethal concentrations of this mixture against Aeromonas hydrophila, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella Typhimurium, Shigella dysenteriae, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio cholerae, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus in nutrient broth were 5 to 29 ppm, which were much lower than those of the chitosan reactant (50 to 1,000 ppm). The antibacterial activity of this mixture in the sterilized milk against E. coli O157, L. monocytogenes, Salmonella Typhimurium, and S. aureus was much stronger at 4 degrees C than at 37 degrees C. When raw milk was supplemented with either 0.24% or 0.48% (wt/vol) of this oligosaccharide mixture and stored at 4 degrees C for 12 days, its mesophilic and psychrotrophic counts were reduced by at least 3 log cycles, and there was very little change in pH. In addition, this mixture retarded the growth of Salmonella species and caused quicker reduction of Staphylococcus species in raw milk. Accordingly, the shelf life of raw milk at 4 degrees C was extended by at least 4 days.     

Inhibition of Salmonella Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes in mung bean sprouts by chemical treatment

This study was undertaken to compare the efficacies of chlorous acid (268 ppm), sodium hypochlorite (200 ppm), and lactic acid (2%) in eliminating total mesophilic microorganisms, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes on commercial mung bean sprouts immediately after treatment and during posttreatment refrigerated storage. Treatment with sodium hypochlorite for 10 min did not reduce the total aerobic count. However, treatment with lactic acid and chlorous acid for 10 min initially reduced the total aerobic count by 0.6 and 0.8 log CFU/g, respectively, and maintained the same level or a lower level of the total aerobic count during the storage time. Treatment with chlorous acid reduced Salmonella Typhimurium from 5.0 log to undetectable levels (<0.48 log CFU/g), and the pathogen remained undetectable over a 9-day storage period. Treatment with lactic acid resulted in an initial 3-log reduction and further reduced the number of Salmonella Typhimurium cells to undetectable levels after 3 days. For L. monocytogenes, treatment with chlorous acid resulted in an initial 5-log reduction, and treatment with lactic acid resulted in a 2-log reduction at the beginning and undetectable levels after 9 days. When chemically injured cells were investigated by the selective overlay method, no statistical difference was observed (P < 0.05) between the number of injured cells recovered following treatment with chlorous acid and the number of bacteria counted on selective media, whereas sodium hypochlorite generated more injured cells than the other treatments did. These data suggest that treatment with chlorous acid may be useful in reducing total mesophilic microorganisms, Salmonella Typhimurium, and L. monocytogenes in commercial mung bean sprouts.     

Characteristics of microbial biofilm on wooden vats ('gerles') in PDO Salers cheese

The purpose of this study was to characterize microbial biofilms from 'gerles' (wooden vats for making PDO Salers cheese) and identify their role in milk inoculation and in preventing pathogen development. Gerles from ten farms producing PDO Salers cheese were subjected to microbial analysis during at least 4 periods spread over two years. They were distinguished by their levels of Lactobacillus (between 4.50 and 6.01 log CFU/cm(2)), Gram negative bacteria (between 1.45 and 4.56 log CFU/cm(2)), yeasts (between 2.91 and 5.57 log CFU/cm(2)), and moulds (between 1.72 and 4.52 log CFU/cm(2)). They were then classed into 4 groups according their microbial characteristics. These 4 groups were characterized by different milk inoculations (with either sour whey or starter culture, daily or not), and different washing procedures (with water or whey from cheese making). The farm gerles were not contaminated by Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes or Staphylococcus aureus. Only one slight, punctual contamination was found on one gerle among the ten studied. Even when the milk was deliberately contaminated with L. monocytogenes and S. aureus in the 40 L experimental gerles, these pathogens were found neither on the gerle surfaces nor in the cheeses. Using 40 L experimental gerles it was shown that the microbial biofilms on the gerle surfaces formed in less than one week and then remained stable. They were mainly composed of a great diversity of lactic acid bacteria (Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides, Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus hilgardii,…), Gram positive catalase positive bacteria (Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens, Curtobacterium oceanosedimentum Citrococcus spp., Brachybacterium rhamnosum, Kocuria rhizophila, Arthrobacter spp.…) and yeast (Kluyveromyces lactis, Kluyveromyces marxianus). In less than 1 min, even in a 500 L farm gerle, the gerle's microbial biofilm can inoculate pasteurized milk with micro-organisms at levels superior to those in raw milk.     

Inhibition of foodborne bacteria by the lactoperoxidase system in a beef cube system

Biopreservatives are being developed to inhibit the growth of foodborne pathogens and thus improve food safety. The lactoperoxidase system (LPS) is a naturally occurring system that has potential for use as an antimicrobial agent in foods. Growth of single strains of the pathogens Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium, Yersinia enterocolitica, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and beef microflora were assessed on LPS-treated meat surfaces in an experimental system. Beef cubes inoculated with approximately 10(4) cfu cm(-2) of bacteria were treated with the LPS and incubated at 37 degrees C for 24 h, 12 degrees C for 7 days or in a chilling regime: 12 to -1 degrees C over 1 week and held at -1 degrees C for 4 weeks. Treatment with LPS was more effective at storage temperatures non-permissive for rapid bacterial growth with strong inhibition of growth achieved on LPS-treated cubes at 12 degrees C and reduction in pathogen viable counts at chilling temperatures. At chilling temperatures, the LPS inhibited the growth of native pseudomonads but did not prevent the development of native lactic acid bacteria.     

Antibacterial effects of long-chain polyphosphates on selected spoilage and pathogenic bacteria

The antimicrobial activities of four long-chain food-grade polyphosphates were studied at concentrations allowed in the food industry (<5,000 ppm) in defined basal media by determining the inhibition of growth of three gram-negative and four gram-positive spoilage and pathogenic bacteria. Both generation time and lag phase of Escherichia coli K-12, E. coli O157: H7, and Salmonella Typhimurium were increased with all of the polyphosphates tested. Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus were more sensitive to polyphosphates, but not in all cases, with multiphased growth. The growth of Lactobacillus plantarum was inhibited by polyphosphates at concentrations above 750 ppm, but the lag time of Listeria monocytogenes was shortened by the presence of polyphosphates. No single polyphosphate was maximally inhibitory against all bacteria. Polyphosphates with chain lengths of 12 to 15 were significantly different from those with chain lengths of 18 to 21 depending on the organism and concentrations of polyphosphate used. Overall, higher polyphosphate concentrations resulted in greater inhibition of bacterial growth.