Investigating geogrid-reinforced ballast: Experimental pull-out tests and discrete element modelling

This paper presents an evaluation of the interlocking behaviour of geogrid-reinforced railway ballast. Experimental large box pull-out tests were conducted to examine the interaction between ballast and a biaxial geogrid. The discrete element method (DEM) was then used to model the interaction between the ballast and the geogrid by simulating large box pull-out tests and comparing the findings with the experimental results. Four different shapes of clumps were used to represent each ballast particle in order to obtain an acceptable shape for modelling the railway ballast. The DEM simulation results were shown to provide good predictions of the pull-out resistance and to examine the effect of clump shape on both the pull-out resistance and the distribution of contact forces. Therefore, the calibrated geogrid model and the 8-ball tetrahedral clumps, used as ballast particles, hold much promise for investigating the interaction between geogrids and ballast, and thus, optimising performance.     

Laboratory pull-out tests using bamboo and polymer geogrids including a case study

This study investigates the interaction between soil and geogrids by using both direct shear and pull-out tests and applied the results to a case study. A polymer geogrid and bamboo grids were used with clayey sand and weathered clay as backfill since these materials are readily available in Thailand. The results indicated that the interaction between soil and reinforcement consists of: (a) the adhesion between soil and reinforcement on the solid surface area of the geogrid; and (b) the bearing capacity of soil in front of all transverse members of the geogrids which behaved as a strip footing embedded in the soil. The proposed design procedure for pull-out resistance agreed fairly well with the laboratory pull-out test results. In addition, it was observed that bamboo grids have higher pull-out resistance per unit area than the polymer geogrids. Moreover, the cohesive fill proved to be quite effective when used with geogrid reinforcement. Finally, the proposed design procedure and test results were applied to a case study on an irrigation canal bank repaired by the Public Works Department of Thailand using cohesive backfill and Tensar SS2 geogrids resulting in much improved slope stability.     

高填黄土明洞卸载结构土压力模型试验和数值模拟分析

通过模型试验,研究了高填黄土明洞不同卸载结构的土压力、土体位移随填土高度的变化规律。试验结果表明,边坡的摩擦上提作用、低压实土产生的土拱效应以及土工格栅变形后的"提兜"作用均能够引起明洞洞顶土压力的减小,其中,低压实土+土工格栅卸载结构卸载率最大;卸载结构不同,明洞顶平面土压力分布规律不同,SY0和SY1在1倍明洞宽度范围内的土压力近似为梯形分布,大于1倍明洞宽度的土压力基本保持不变,近似为均匀分布,SY2~SY5明洞中轴线到0.75倍明洞宽度处,土压力基本保持一致,大于0.75倍明洞宽度的土压力呈先增大后减小的趋势。随后对试验过程进行了数值模拟分析,两者结果较为吻合。最后探讨了土拱效应形成机理,从而为高填明洞土压力卸载技术的进一步研究提供科学依据。     

Static structural behavior of geogrid reinforced soil retaining walls with a deformation buffer zone

To understand the structural behavior of geogrid reinforced soil retaining walls (GRSW) with a deformation buffer zone (DBZ) under static loads, the model tests and the numerical simulations were conducted to obtain the wall face horizontal displacement, vertical and horizontal soil pressures, and geogrid strains. Results showed that compared with the common GRSW, the horizontal displacement of GRSW with DBZ decreased, and the horizontal soil pressure acting on the face panel of GRSW with DBZ increased. The vertical and horizontal soil pressures showed a nonlinear distribution along the reinforcement length, and the value was smaller near the face panel. The horizontal soil pressure acting on the face panel of GRSW with DBZ was greater than that of the common GRSW in the middle portion. The cumulative strain of the geogrid had a single-peak distribution along its length; the maximum strain of the geogrid was 0.45%, the maximum tension was approximately 29.12% of ultimate tensile strength.     

筋土界面变形破坏模式细观试验研究

利用自制的模型试验设备,在平潭标准砂中对玻纤网布和土工格栅进行了一系列拉拔试验,应用数字照相变形量测技术,从细观角度研究土工合成材料(片状的和格栅状的)接触界面的变形模式,得出接触面的形式和厚度,还研究了土工格栅横肋作用下土体的破坏模式。接触界面区域在传统意义上并不被认为是剪切带,本文模型试验的结果表明二者在本质上是一致的。在土工格栅拉拔试验中,土工格栅的位移逐步从前部向后部发挥,出现上下两条接触面区域,其厚度在密砂和松砂拉拔试验中相当于5倍和7.5倍平均颗粒直径;在玻纤网布拉拔试验中,只出现一条接触面,其厚度为7.5倍平均颗粒直径;随着位移的增加,格栅横肋在土中的最大剪应变集中区域呈“x”形,但并不对称。本文揭示了加筋土的宏细观力学机理,研究内容、方法和主要结论可为类似的研究提供参考,并从细观机理上为接触界面的研究提供新的认识和理解。     

Three-dimensional physical modeling of load transfer in basal reinforced embankments under differential settlement

This study developed a large-scale laboratory apparatus to evaluate the load transfer behavior of basal reinforced embankment fill because of soil arching and geogrid tensile force. A 3D trapdoor-like test system performed five scaled model tests using analogical soil. The instrumentation system involved multiple earth pressure cells, dial gauges, multipoint settlement gauges, and geogrid strainmeters. Comprehensive measurements were performed to investigate the evolution of soil stress and displacement at specific fill elevations with variations in the area replacement ratio and geogrid stiffness. The critical height of the soil arching was determined to be ～1.1–1.94 times the clear pile spacing based on the soil stress and displacement profiles. The distribution of the geogrid tensile strain between and above the adjacent caps demonstrated that the maximum geogrid strains occur on top of the caps, and the tensioned geogrid effect on the load transfer efficiency was evaluated. The cap size and center-to-center pile spacing affect the pile efficacy more significantly than the stiffness of the geogrid. The measured critical heights of arching, stress concentration ratios, and geogrid strain matched those calculated by several well-recognized analytical methods. This experimental program facilitates the development of arching models that account for differential settlement impact.     

界面特性及填料粒径影响格栅加筋性能的离散元研究

为研究筋土界面细观结构演化及填料粒径对加筋效果的影响,采用“clump”方法开发了可模拟砂土性状的椭球形颗粒,建立三维离散元模型并结合室内试验结果验证了模型的正确性,系统分析了拉拔阻力、格栅应变、局部孔隙率等力学响应并揭示了其发展规律。拉拔试验结果显示大粒径填料置换后表观黏聚力提高显著而摩擦角变化不大,进行宏细观分析后发现,置换体系颗粒发生了更大程度的位置重排,拉拔力增量主要来源于摩擦阻力。研究成果可为从细观角度探究筋土界面机理提供新的认识。     

Physical and numerical modelling of strip footing on geogrid reinforced transparent sand

This paper presents the results of laboratory scale plate load tests on transparent soils reinforced with biaxial polypropylene geogrids. The influence of reinforcement length and number of reinforcement layers on the load-settlement response of the reinforced soil foundation was assessed by varying the reinforcement length and the number of geogrid layers, each spaced at 25% of footing width. The deformations of the reinforcement layers and soil under strip loading were examined with the aid of laser transmitters (to illuminate the geogrid reinforcement) and digital camera. A two-dimensional finite difference program was used to study the fracture of geogrid under strip loading considering the geometry of the model tests. The bearing capacity and stiffness of the reinforced soil foundation has increased with the increase in the reinforcement length and number of reinforcement layers, but the increase is more prominent by increasing number of reinforcement layers. The results from the physical and numerical modelling on reinforced soil foundation reveal that fracture of geogrid could initiate in the bottom layer of reinforcement and progress to subsequent upper layers. The displacement and stress contours along with the mobilized tensile force distribution obtained from the numerical simulations have complimented the observations made from the experiments.     

土工格栅与铜矿尾矿界面作用特性的实验研究

钢塑复合土工格栅的加筋效果好于其它筋材的原因在于其表面结构特性,在生产过程中塑料表面处理时,肋条压制成粗糙的花纹,以增强格栅表面的粗糙程度,提高CATT钢塑复合土工格栅与土体的摩擦系数。它与土之间不仅存在表面摩擦力,而且还存在镶嵌咬合力,从而增强加筋土体的稳定性。文中以不同规格的钢塑复合土工格栅作为加筋材料,以有色金属铜矿的尾矿作为填料土,通过拉拔实验,研究钢塑复合土工格栅与铜矿尾矿填料土的界面作用特性,获得了筋——土之间的剪切强度系数（C、ψ）、似摩擦系数f^＊等结果,并对它们的影响因素进行了分析与探讨。     

Displacement and load transfer mechanisms of geogrids under pullout condition

Reinforcing elements embedded within soil mass improve stabilization through a load transfer mechanism between the soil and the reinforcement. Geogrids are a type of geosynthetic frequently used for soil reinforcement, consisting of equally spaced longitudinal and transverse ribs. Under pullout conditions, the longitudinal ribs are responsible for tensile resistance, while transverse ribs contribute to a passive resistance. This paper describes a new analytical model capable of reproducing both load transfer and displacement mechanisms on the geogrid length, under pullout conditions. The model subdivides the geogrid into rheological units, composed by friction/adhesion and spring elements, mounted in line. Friction/adhesion elements respond to the shear component mobilized at the soil–geogrid interface. Spring elements respond to the geogrid's tensile elongation. Model parameters are obtained through tensile strength tests on geogrids and conventional direct shear tests on soil specimens. The need for instrumented pullout tests becomes therefore eliminated. Results predicted from this new model were compared to instrumented pullout test data from two types of geogrids, under various confining stress levels. The results revealed that the new model is capable of reasonably predicting load and displacement distributions along the geogrid.     

基于影响带观测的加筋土坡稳定性分析

为了观测土工格栅加筋影响带的范围,采用特制的一侧透明的拉拔盒,共对6种不同级配的粗粒土分别完成了4种法向压力下的拉拔试验。通过预埋于土中用大头针尖制作并包裹于导线皮中的位移观测点,直接观测了土工格栅在粗粒土中拉拔引起的土粒位移,发现格栅的拉拔会带动其上一定厚度范围内的土体发生移动,这个范围称之为加筋影响带。试验发现平均粒径d_(50)0.83 mm的粗粒土中,土工格栅加筋影响带的厚度δ与试样的法向压力没有关联,主要与土粒级配有关,当d_(50)1.05 mm时,δ随d_(50)的增大有较显著的增加;而当d_(50)1.05 mm后,这种趋势明显减缓;特别是当d_(50)1.65 mm后,二者呈良好的线性递增关系。基于这一试验结果,提出了考虑加筋影响带的加筋土坡稳定性分析方法,简称影响带法。在这一方法中,认为土工格栅的加筋作用相当于增加了加筋影响带内土的黏聚力,而内摩擦角不变。从而将加筋土坡简化为成层土坡,使计算大为简化。而计算得到的加筋土坡稳定安全系数在加筋层距不大于0.6 m,且格栅抗拉强度大于20 k N/m时,与有限元强度折减法的计算结果符合良好。     

影响格栅加筋膨胀土拉拔试验的新因素分析

不少学者开展过土中加筋拉拔试验,受测试仪器所限,大多通过改变填土含水率、厚度(上覆法向压力)、类型(粗、细粒土)及拉拔速度等因素来研究对试验结果的影响,除考虑筋材类型(土工格栅、带、网或布)外,对筋土中另一重要影响因素—筋材的初始张拉状态少有研究。本文采用长沙理工大学自行研发的大型数控拉拔试验系统,发挥其尺寸大、双向气囊加载、消除侧壁摩擦等优势,开展膨胀土中格栅加筋拉拔试验,探究筋材尺寸、初始张拉状态、温度、界面残余强度及拉拔方式等新因素对测试值的影响。结果表明:格栅尺寸有一定影响,尤其宽度影响较大;对最大拉拔力而言,格栅应力释放的影响近8.8%;拉拔方式的影响约12.1%;温度的影响为15.9%;残余强度的影响占23.6%。研究结果可供加筋膨胀土工程设计参考。     

Effect of earth reinforcement,soil properties and wall properties on bridge MSE walls

Mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) retaining walls are popular for highway bridge structures. They have precast concrete panels attached to earth reinforcement. The panels are designed to have some lateral movement. However, in some cases, excessive movement and even complete dislocation of the panels have been observed. In this study, 3-D numerical modeling involving an existing MSE wall was undertaken to investigate various wall parameters. The effects of pore pressure, soil cohesion, earth reinforcement type and length, breakage/slippage of reinforcement and concrete strength, were examined. Results showed that the wall movement is affected by soil pore pressure and reinforcement integrity and length, and unaffected by concrete strength. Soil cohesion has a minor effect, while the movement increased by 13–20 mm for flexible geogrid reinforced walls compared with the steel grid walls. The steel grid stresses were below yielding, while the geogrid experienced significant stresses without rupture. Geogrid reinforcement may be used taking account of slippage resistance and wall movement. If steel grid is used, non-cohesive soil is recommended to minimize corrosion. Proper soil drainage is important for control of pore pressure.     

Mechanical property and deformation behavior of geogrid reinforced calcareous sand

The strength and deformation properties of maritime geotechnical structures made primarily of calcareous sand are critical for project safety, and geogrid reinforcement is a promising new approach. A series of consolidated drained triaxial experiments were conducted to evaluate the mechanical property and deformation behaviors of geogrid reinforced calcareous sand (GRCS), taking into consideration the impacts of the geogrid layer, relative density, particle size, and confining pressure. In comparison to the unreinforced calcareous sand, the strength of the GRCS is greatly enhanced, and the deviatoric stress-strain curves are altered from slightly softening to hardening, as well as the suppressed shearing dilatancy. The geogrid, relative compactness, particle size, and confining pressure are all intimately related to the volume changes and shearing dilatancy of reinforced specimens, but particle crushing is mostly impacted by the confining pressure. The interactions of geogrid ribs and calcareous sand particles are summarized as two types of constraint and friction using scanning electron microscope tests to establish a simplified calculation method of horizontal and vertical equivalent additional stresses that could provide a reference for revealing the mechanical mechanism of GRCS.     

Experimental studies of the geosynthetic anchorage – Effect of geometric parameters and efficiency of anchorages

The soil reinforcement by geosynthetic is widely used in civil engineering structures: embankments on compressible soil, slope on stable foundations, embankments on cavities and retaining structures. The stability of these structures specially depends on the efficiency of the anchors holding the geosynthetic sheets. Simple run-out and wrap around anchorages are two most commonly used approaches. In order to improve the available knowledge of the anchorage system behaviour, experimental studies were carried out. This paper focuses on a three-dimensional physical modelling of the geosynthetics behaviour for two types of anchors (simple run-out and wrap around). The pull-out tests were performed with an anchorage bench under laboratory controlled conditions with three types of geosynthetic (two geotextiles and one geogrid) and in the presence of two types of soil (gravel and sand).The results show that there is an optimum length for the upper part of the geosynthetic for the wrap around anchorage.     

Centrifuge model study on geogrid reinforced soil walls with marginal backfills with and without chimney sand drain

The objective of this paper is to investigate the performance of geogrid reinforced soil walls with panel facing using marginal backfill with and without chimney sand drain subjected to seepage. A series of centrifuge model tests were performed at 40 gravities using a 4.5 m radius large beam centrifuge facility available at IIT Bombay. The results revealed that a geogrid reinforced soil wall with low stiffness geogrid and without any chimney drain experienced a catastrophic failure due to excess pore water pressure that developed in the reinforced and backfill zones at the onset of seepage. In comparison, a soil wall reinforced with stiff geogrid layers was found to perform effectively even at the onset of seepage. Provision of chimney sand drain effectively decreased pore water pressure not only at the wall toe but also at mid-distance from toe of the wall and thereby resulted in enhancing the wall performance under the effect of seepage forces. However, a local piping failure was observed near the toe region of the wall. The observed centrifuge test results were further analysed by performing seepage and stability analyses to evaluate the effect of thickness of sand layer in a chimney drain. An increase in thickness of sand layer in chimney drain was found to improve the discharge values and thereby enhancing the factor of safety against piping near the toe region. Based on the analysis and interpretation of centrifuge test results, it can be concluded that marginal soil can be used as a backfill in reinforced soil walls provided, it has geogrid layers of adequate stiffness and/or proper chimney drain configuration.     

Centrifuge model studies on the performance of soil walls reinforced with sand-cushioned geogrid layers

This paper is to investigate the effectiveness of encapsulating geogrid layers within thin sand layers, for enhancing the deformation behavior of vertical reinforced soil walls constructed with marginal backfills. Centrifuge model tests were performed on vertical soil walls, reinforced with geogrid layers, using a 4.5 m radius large beam centrifuge available at IIT Bombay at 40 gravities. The backfill conditions, height of soil wall, reinforcement length, and reinforcement spacing, were kept constant in all the tests. A wrap-around technique was used to represent flexible facing. Three different geogrid types with varying stiffness were used in the present study. The walls were instrumented with vertical linear variable differential transformers to monitor surface settlements during the tests. Marker-based digital image analysis technique was used to determine face movements and distribution of geogrid strain along the wall height. The deformation behavior of soil walls, reinforced with geogrid layers encapsulated in thin layers of sand, were compared against a base model having no sand-cushioned geogrid layers. Provision of sand-cushioned geogrid layers and increase in geogrid stiffness were found to limit normalized face movements (S_f/H), normalized crest settlements (S_c/H), and change in maximum peak reinforcement strain (dε_pmax). Sand-cushioned geogrid layers were also found to limit the development of tension cracks behind and within the reinforced zone. Significant reduction in rate of maximum face movement (dS_fmax/dt) and rate of maximum peak reinforcement strain (dε_pmax/dt) was observed, with an increase in value of normalized reinforcement stiffness (J_g/γH²) of geogrid layers. The analysis and interpretation of centrifuge model tests on soil walls, constructed with marginal backfills and reinforced with sand-cushioned geogrid layers, indicate that their performance is superior to the walls without sand-cushioned geogrid layers.     

Behaviour of geogrid reinforced soil retaining wall with concrete-rigid facing

Monitoring was carried out during construction of a cast-in-situ concrete-rigid facing geogrid reinforced soil retaining wall in the Gan (Zhou)-Long (Yan) railway main line of China. The monitoring included the vertical foundation pressure and lateral earth pressure of the reinforced soil wall facing, the tensile strain in the reinforcement and the horizontal deformation of the facing. The vertical foundation pressure of reinforced soil retaining wall is non-linear along the reinforcement length, and the maximum value is at the middle of the reinforcement length, moreover the value reduces gradually at top and bottom. The measured lateral earth pressure within the reinforced soil wall is non-linear along the height and the value is less than the active lateral earth pressure. The distribution of tensile strain in the geogrid reinforcements within the upper portion of the wall is single-peak value, but the distribution of tensile strain in the reinforcements within the lower portion of the wall has double-peak values. The potential failure plane within the upper portion of the wall is similar to “0.3H method”, whereas the potential failure plane within portion of the lower wall is closer to the active Rankine earth pressure theory. The position of the maximum lateral displacement of the wall face during construction is within portion of the lower wall, moreover the position of the maximum lateral displacement of the wall face post-construction is within the portion of the top wall. These monitoring results of the behaviour of the wall can be used as a reference for future study and design of geogrid reinforced soil retaining wall systems.     

静动载下筋材变化对加筋土挡墙性能影响分析

为了研究动静荷载下,加筋长度及筋材类型变化对加筋土挡墙工作性能的影响,进行了7种工况下的加筋土挡墙模型试验,对比分析了加筋土挡墙的水平土压力、水平土压力系数、墙面水平位移和加载板竖向沉降及筋材应变等参数的发展规律。试验结果表明:动载下加筋土挡墙筋材应变随着加载时间的增长、加筋长度的减小、位置高度的增加而增大,且顶层筋材应变远远大于其他层;加筋长度及筋材横肋的减少明显降低挡墙的承载性能,格栅横肋减少导致挡墙极限承载力降低18% ,加筋长度减少使面板水平位移最大增大了2.2倍;与静载作用下相比,动载下土工格栅的侧向约束作用及网兜效应能够得到更好地发挥。     

Large scale direct shear tests of soil/PET-yarn geogrid interfaces

The interface shear strength of soil against geosynthetic is of great interest among the researchers in geosynthetic properties. This study conducts a series of large scale direct shear tests to investigate the interface shear strength of different soils (sand, gravel, and laterite) against PET-yarn geogrids of various tensile strengths, percent open area, and aperture patterns. First, the appropriateness of different set-ups of a lower shearing box is examined in this study. It reveals that a lower box which is filled with the test soil and is of the same size as the upper box is more suitable for testing the soil/geogrid interface. The test results show that the soil/PET-yarn geotextile interface has significantly lower shear strength than soil strength. The ratio of shear strength soil/PET-yarn geotextile interface to internal shear strength of soil is about 0.7–0.8 for Ottawa sand and for laterite, and it is about 0.85–0.95 for gravel. On the other hand, the soil/geogrid interface has higher shear strength. The ratio of shear strength soil/PET-yarn geogrid interface to internal shear strength of soil is about 0.9–1.05. It is found that the shear strength ratio of soil/PET-yarn geogrid interface is positively correlated to the transverse tensile strength of the PET-yarn geogrid. However, it is negatively correlated with the aperture length and percent open area of the PET-yarn geogrid. The interface shear test results of PET-yarn geogrid against different soils are compared with the test results predicted by a classical model for analyzing the applicability of the classical model. Further, a simple model is proposed herein to estimate the bearing resistance provided by the transverse ribs of geogrid. It shows this component to be about 0–15% when PET-yarn geogrid is against Ottawa sand or laterite, while it is smaller when the PET-yarn geogrid is against gravel.