Magnitude and significance of tensile strains in geomembrane landfill liners

The implications of the tensile stress/strain developed in high density polyethylene (HDPE) geomembranes (GMB) is explored in the context of a reduction in stress crack resistance due to ageing in contact with leachate in a municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill. The experimental evidence of GMB cracking and ultimately failure when subject to excessive tensile strains is discussed to highlight the need to limit the maximum tensile strain sustained by an HDPE GMB to an acceptable level if good long-term performance is to be ensured. The effect of both local GMB indentations induced by gravel in an overlying drainage layer or an underlying clay liner on tensile strain is reviewed. In addition, the tensile strains caused by down-drag in the GMB on side slopes with settlement of the waste is examined. The key research related to tensile strains developed in GMBs from these sources is reviewed and new data presented. It is shown that an appropriate protection layer over the GMB can limit local GMB tensile strains to less than 3% and that the selection of a suitable slope inclination and stiffness of a geotextile reinforcement layer can limit the GMB strains due to down-drag to less than 2% and geotextile strains to less than 4% after long-term waste settlement.     

Development of geomembrane strains in waste containment facility liners with waste settlement

The development of tensile strains in geomembrane liners due to loading and waste settlement in waste containment facilities is examined using a numerical model. Two different constitutive models are used to simulate the waste: (a) a modified Cam-Clay model and (b) a Mohr-Coulomb model. The numerical analyses indicate the role of the slope inclination on the maximum geomembrane liner strains for both short-term loading (immediately post closure) and long-term waste settlement. A geosynthetic reinforcement layer over the geomembrane liner is shown to reduce the maximum geomembrane liner strains, but the strain level of the geosynthetic reinforcement itself may become an engineering concern on steeper slopes (i.e., greater than 3H:1V) for cases and conditions examined in this paper. The paper considers some factors (e.g., slope inclination, use of a high stiffness geosynthetic over the geomembrane liner) and notes others (e.g., the designer selection of interface characteristics below and above the geomembrane, use of a slip layer above the geomembrane) that warrant consideration and further investigation to ensure good long-term performance of geomembrane liners in waste containment facilities.     

城市固体废弃物的复合指数应力–应变模型及其应用

在大三轴固结排水剪试验研究的基础上,提出了城市固体废弃物(MSW)的复合指数应力–应变模型。该模型参数少且有明确的物理意义,既可反映MSW在小应变情况下的非线性变形特性,也可反映其在大应变情况下的明显应变硬化特性。采用有限差分程序FLAC内置的Fish语言将复合指数应力–应变模型耦合入FLAC程序,并通过三轴压缩试验数值模拟得到了验证。最后利用该模型分析了某填埋场在竖向扩建堆体荷载作用下的应力压缩沉降、侧向变形以及新老填埋场交界面处中间衬垫系统的应变。结果表明:复合指数模型的计算结果总体上位于莫尔–库仑模型和邓肯–张模型之间;中间衬垫系统的拉伸应变可能导致压实黏土层发生破坏。     

复杂荷载作用下填埋场HDPE土工膜受拉计算

采用FLAC程序对典型荷载作用下城市垃圾填埋场HDPE土工膜的受力状况进行了计算分析。3种荷载条件包括:36 m高垃圾堆体自重荷载(分层填埋);下卧软弱黏土层不均匀沉降引起的荷载;地震引起的动力荷载。计算结果显示:①土工膜内的拉应力随着垃圾土分层填埋、基础不均匀沉降、地震荷载的作用而积累;②基础不均匀沉陷是影响衬垫层土工膜局部拉应力的主要因素;③中等强度水平的地震动输入(例如,峰值加速度为0.25g)可使覆盖层土工膜端部锚固位置拉应力超过极限拉应力。     

Development of a numerical model for performance-based design of geosynthetic liner systems

A numerical model for performance-based design of the geosynthetic elements of waste containment systems has been developed. The model offers a rational alternative to the current state of practice for design of geosynthetic containment system elements in which neither the strains nor the forces in liner system elements are explicitly calculated. To explicitly assess the ability of the geosynthetic elements of a containment system to maintain their integrity under both static and seismic loads, a large strain finite difference model of waste-liner system interaction was developed. Modular features within the model allow the user to select the appropriate features required for any particular problem. A beam element with zero moment of inertia and with interface elements on both sides is employed in the model to represent a geosynthetic element in the liner system. This enables explicit calculation of the axial forces and strains within the liner system element. Non-linear constitutive models were developed to represent the stress-strain behavior of geomembrane and geosynthetic clay liner beam elements and the load-displacement behavior of the beam interfaces. The use of the various features on the model is illustrated using available experimental data, including shaking table test data on rigid and compliant blocks sliding on geomembranes. Analysis of geomembranes subject to waste settlement and subject to seismic loading demonstrate applications of the model and provide insight into the behavior of geosynthetic liner system elements subject to tensile loads.     

下卧土体局部沉陷条件下复合衬垫系统的受力变形性能及设计

考虑上覆土体的土拱效应及衬垫的大变形,将下卧土体局部沉陷条件下的复合衬垫系统分为滑动区和沉陷区。建立了其受力变形分析模型,并以衬垫系统的最大拉应变作为控制标准,建立了工程上衬垫系统的抗沉陷设计方法。利用该分析模型研究了滑动区衬垫界面强度、衬垫上覆土体的厚度、重度、有效内摩擦角等参数和衬垫结构形式的影响,发现上覆土体厚度、重度及有效内摩擦角对衬垫受力变形影响很大,而衬垫的抗拉刚度直接决定了其拉应变大小。结合工程实例进行了衬垫系统的抗沉陷设计,并建议了衬垫的抗沉陷结构形式。     

应变硬化垃圾堆体抗局部沉陷研究

通过三种不同材料堆体的局部沉陷模型试验发现局部沉陷条件下应变硬化材料可能产生"自支撑"现象。利用模型试验和退化情况下的解析解验证了数值分析模型模拟应变硬化材料堆体局部沉陷问题的有效性。在此基础上比较了采用不同垃圾应力应变模型的分析结果,考虑堆体材料应变硬化的复合指数模型和线弹性模型计算得到的沉陷区土压力明显小于与之对应的摩尔-库伦模型计算结果,采用传统摩尔-库伦模型计算得到的沉陷区衬垫系统挠曲变形和应变值偏大,因而针对砂土材料的Giroud(1990)Trapdoor土拱效应理论应用于垃圾堆体局部沉陷分析时存在一定的局限性。进一步分析了各种参数对衬垫系统表面土压力和变形的影响,发现沉陷区衬垫系统最大挠度和最大应变随垃圾堆体高度的增加而增加,随垃圾堆体模量和加筋体刚度的增加而减小。最后提出应变硬化垃圾堆体在局部沉陷条件下衬垫系统土工膜的应变计算和加筋层的设计方法,对于垃圾填埋场衬垫系统抗局部沉陷设计具有一定的指导意义。     

基础局部沉降下土工格栅加筋衬垫系统变形特性的试验研究

基础局部沉降会引起垃圾填埋场衬垫系统中的土工膜产生较大的拉应变,有可能导致衬垫系统性能下降,因此正确评价衬垫系统的应变就显得非常重要。通过模拟试验,采用应变片和位移计对基础发生局部沉降后土工格栅加筋衬垫系统的变形进行试验研究。试验结果表明:环境温度对衬垫系统的变形影响较大;相同组成材料下土工格栅和土工膜叠放在一起比其他方案更能降低土工膜的应变;衬垫系统刚度对沉陷范围影响不大,但对最大应变值影响较大。所得结果对垃圾填埋场衬垫系统的设计具有一定的指导意义。     

Geosynthetic liner integrity and stability analysis for a waste containment facility with a preferential slip plane within the liner system

The paper examines the effects of settlement-induced downdrag on geosynthetic liner systems for a waste containment facility with steep side slopes for different design scenarios, and conducts the stability analysis of the waste mass during waste filling operations. Without the presence of a reinforcing layer above a geomembrane (GMB) liner, the liner experiences unacceptable tensile strains under both short- and long-term downdrag waste settlements. It is shown that an anchored high strength/stiffness geotextile (HS-GTX) reinforcement over the GMB can reduce the GMB tensile strains to less than 3%, but the HS-GTX itself may be overloaded. A geosynthetic slip layer over the full or partial HS-GTX reinforcement overlying the GMB can reduce the tensile strains of the GMB to less than 3% and of the HS-GTX to less than 5% by providing a preferential slip plane between the geosynthetic slip layer and the HS-GTX. A rupture of the geosynthetic slip layer is likely to occur resulting in the exposure of the HS-GTX to the waste, but the protection of the GMB by the HS-GTX is still expected. The results from the stability analysis show that, during waste filling operations under a given factor of safety, there is a critical relationship between the width of the top of the waste pile and the total waste thickness.     

Field behaviors of a geogrid reinforced MSW slope in a high-food-waste-content MSW landfill: A case study

A one-year field monitoring of a geogrid reinforced municipal solid waste (MSW) slope was conducted in the Xingfeng Landfill. Settlement tubes, strain gauges and earth pressure cells were used to measure the vertical settlement, the reinforcement strains and the vertical earth pressures in the reinforced MSW slope, respectively. During the monitoring period, the waste sliding occurred and the fresh MSW was dumped at the top of the reinforced slope. The vertical settlement along the reinforcement was nonlinear and the peak settlement occurred at the central part of the reinforcement. The reinforcement strains and the vertical earth pressures at various positions were affected by the sliding and the waste dumping to differing extents. Along the lengths of the geogrid reinforcements, the reinforcement strains showed single-peak distributions. The peak strains were attained in the central part of the reinforcements and the minimum strains were attained at the tail ends. The vertical earth pressures mainly depend on the overlying loads; however, the distributions of them along the reinforcement were nonlinear. Based on the monitoring results, the slope stability evaluation was conducted. It shows that the internal stability of the reinforced MSW slope might be sufficient, while the external stability was insufficient, meaning that this reinforced project was unsuccessful. Finally, various lessons and design suggestions learned from this unsuccessful project were discussed, which could provide valuable references for the future practice of geosynthetic reinforced MSW.     

HDPE土工膜端部张拉力的大规模实测数据分析

 垃圾填埋场边土工膜主要受到温度应力和垃圾压缩引起的张拉力的作用，为评价垃圾填埋场防渗系统中高密度聚乙烯(HDPE)土工膜的温度应力和垃圾填埋压缩引起的端部张拉力，以短纤维无纺布、HDPE土工膜组成防渗系统，进行大规模现场试验。试验结果表明：伴随环境温度的下降，HDPE土工膜中产生温度应力，当填埋高度较小时作用在HDPE土工膜端部的张拉力主要为温度应力；随着填埋高度的增加，压缩引起的HDPE土工膜端部张拉力增大。用有限元算法对压缩引起的端部张拉力进行分析，并采用温度与HDPE土工膜张拉力的关系对温度应力进行分析。计算结果与实测结果的对比情况表明，考虑填埋压缩引起的张拉力的应力松弛后计算结果更加接近实测结果。     

城市生活垃圾降解-压缩特性试验研究

为了研究垃圾土在好氧和厌氧阶段因外部温度场的变化对降解特性的影响,选取重庆市某垃圾场作为研究对象,进行了两种不同温度控制的降解试验,同时对渗滤液中可溶解有机碳含量进行了追踪测试,试验结果表明：①不同有机物含量垃圾土试样,当外部温度场小于22℃或者大于45℃时,温度对有机质降解的影响较小;②当温度在22℃~45℃时,根据垃圾土产气量、渗滤液溢出量以及质量损失率得出此温度区间对垃圾中有机质的降解起明显加速作用,降解反应程度在41℃时最大;③根据温度-质量损失率关系,推导了考虑温度效应的分阶段垃圾土降解率计算模型,并且得出垃圾土的降解率在0~180 d符合自然降解规律,为时间的函数;在180~360 d,降解率为时间和温度的双重函数;模型验证结果表明,计算结果与试验结果能够比较好的吻合。     

Geomembrane puncture and strains from stones in an underlying clay layer

Results from physical experiments are presented to assess the possible puncture of a 1.5-mm-thick HDPE geomembrane and, if not punctured, the maximum tensile strains in the deformed geomembrane from intentionally placed stone particles in an underlying compacted clay liner when subjected to applied vertical stresses. The influences of applied pressure, clay water content, stone size, stone burial depth and protection layer on the geomembrane tensile strains are reported. Except in one test conducted to a pressure of 2000 kPa, the geomembrane was not punctured in the short-term tests conducted; however, it was subjected to local indentations and tensile strains from the underlying gravel particles that may exceed proposed allowable long-term strain limits. Tensile strains for the specific 35 mm stones tested when initially flush with the clay surface were negligible, even up to pressures of 1000 kPa, provided the initial water content of clay was 12%. Increases in water content or stone size were found to increase the tensile strain. Placing the clay at the lower limit of acceptable water content was found to be beneficial in terms of reducing strains from buried stones; however, this was also found to make the geomembrane more susceptible to stone particles sitting on top of the clay surface and hence careful site inspection is required to remove all visible stones that sit on top of the clay surface.     

考虑垃圾体沉降的生物反应器填埋场 渗滤液回灌运移规律

生物反应器填埋场在渗滤液的回灌过程中,垃圾体会产生较大的沉降变形,这主要是由于填埋体的自重和生物降解所致。由于沉降变形会导致生物反应器填埋场中垃圾体的孔隙比减小,孔隙比的减小会影响垃圾体的渗透系数和填埋场所能容纳的渗滤液量。为了研究考虑垃圾体沉降的生物反应器填埋场渗滤液回灌运移规律,根据质量守恒原理,以修正的Darcy定理为基础,结合Elagroudy等人提出的沉降模型,建立了考虑垃圾体沉降的生物反应器填埋场渗滤液回灌的计算模型,应用该模型研究了非饱和条件下渗滤液在生物反应器填埋场中的运移规律,分析了回灌强度、垃圾体初始孔隙比、初始含水率和组成成份等参数变化对垃圾体含水率和填埋场单位表面积回灌量的影响规律。     

填埋场斜坡上土工膜受力特性的离心模型试验研究

由于垃圾土沉降大,斜坡上土工膜易受到较大下拽力而破损,影响衬垫系统防渗功能。通过离心模型试验对填埋场斜坡上土工膜在垃圾土重力和沉降作用下的拉力和应变进行了研究,并通过FLAC数值对比分析,可获得如下结论：试验采用的模型垃圾土能很好地模拟现场垃圾土,模型土最大沉降量可达土层厚度的20%;土工膜存在中性点,以中性点为界土工膜可分为受拉区和受压区,中性点的位置与坡度和沉降有关,从坡顶到中性点拉应变逐渐变小,从中性点到坡脚压应变先增大后减小;坡度和沉降是影响土工膜拉力发展的重要因素,坡度或沉降越大,拉力越大,沉降是通过改变界面强度的发挥程度来影响土工膜拉力的发展;当采用单糙面土工膜（上光下糙）时,外部作用力很难向土工膜下界面传递,土工膜锚固端拉力几乎为零。     

Controlling strain in geosynthetic liner systems used in vertically expanded landfills

According to relevant new regulations in China,a composite liner system involving geosynthetic materials must be installed at the bottom of an expanded landfill.The deformation and integrity of the composite liner under a variety of factors are important issue to be considered in the design of a landfill expansion.In this paper,we investigate the strain distribution in geosynthetic materials within the composite liner system of expanded landfills,including strains in geosynthetic materials resulting from overall settlement and lateral movement of landfills,localized subsidence in landfills,and differential settlement around gas venting wells.The allowable strains of geosynthetic materials are discussed based on the results of tensile tests,and the corresponding design criteria for composite liner systems are proposed.Meanwhile,practical measures allowing strain control in geosynthetic materials used in landfill engineering are proposed.     

地基沉降作用下埋地聚乙烯管强度失效的数值模拟

对聚乙烯(PE)管进行不同应变率下的拉伸试验,并采用率相关本构模型获得PE管的材料参数.利用Abaqus软件模拟了埋地PE管在地基沉降作用下的应力-应变行为,分析了PE管应力随沉降位移的变化情况,探讨了过渡段长度对PE管屈服应力的影响.结果表明:PE管的最大Mises应力随沉降位移的增加而增大,危险段发生在过渡段与沉降区或非沉降区的交界处;随着过渡段长度的增加,PE管屈服的沉降位移逐渐增大,在同等沉降位移条件下,长过渡段埋地PE管比短过渡段埋地PE管更安全.     

Evaluation of creep behavior of high density polyethylene and polyethylene-terephthalate geogrids

The tensile creep behavior of polyethylene-terephthalate (PET) and high density polyethylene (HDPE) geogrids was evaluated using five test methods: the short- and long-term stepped isothermal method (SIM), the short- and long-term time-temperature superposition (TTS), and the conventional method. SIM and TTS are acceleration tests using elevated temperatures. SIM uses a single specimen throughout all temperature steps in contrast to TTS in which a new specimen is employed for each temperature step. The test results indicate that at the same percentage of ultimate tensile strength, PET geogrid exhibited less creep deformation than the HDPE geogrid. The HDPE geogrid exhibited primary, secondary, and tertiary creep stages before rupture, whereas only primary creep and tertiary creep were detected in the PET geogrid. Furthermore, the strain rate of the primary creep stage was found to be independent of the applied loads for the PET geogrid, while it increased exponentially for the HDPE geogrid. The activation energies deduced from different accelerated creep tests were very similar for the PET geogrid. In contrast, the activation energies were higher from the short-term acceleration tests than from the long-term tests for the HDPE geogrid. The four-parameter Weibull model was able to predict the linear and non-linear creep behavior up to 100 years based on 10-h creep testing data. The creep reduction factor of 100 years design life was evaluated and higher values were resulted from the HDPE geogrid than from the PET geogrid.     

垃圾填埋场土工合成材料界面摩擦特性的拉拔试验研究

土工合成材料与填料的界面特性是决定垃圾填埋场中衬垫系统与土工合成材料受力特性的重要因素。选择3种不同种类的土工合成材料,用砂土和黏土为填料,通过拉拔试验研究土工合成材料的界面特性。试验结果表明:界面的峰值剪切强度与峰值位移随着法向应力的增加而增加;土工合成材料与黏土之间的摩擦角较大;填料为砂土时,无纺布与填料间的摩擦角最大,EPDM次之,HDPE最小;当HDPE上下都铺无纺布时,界面的摩擦系数最小。     

Numerical study on maximum reinforcement tensile forces in geosynthetic reinforced soil bridge abutments

This paper presents a numerical study of maximum reinforcement tensile forces for geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS) bridge abutments. The backfill soil was characterized using a nonlinear elasto-plastic constitutive model that incorporates a hyperbolic stress-strain relationship with strain softening behavior and the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. The geogrid reinforcement was characterized using a hyperbolic load-strain-time constitutive model. The GRS bridge abutments were numerically constructed in stages, including soil compaction effects, and then loaded in stages to the service load condition (i.e., applied vertical stress?=?200?kPa) and finally to the failure condition (i.e., vertical strain?=?5%). A parametric study was conducted to investigate the effects of geogrid reinforcement, backfill soil, and abutment geometry on reinforcement tensile forces at the service load condition and failure condition. Results indicate that reinforcement vertical spacing and backfill soil friction angle have the most significant effects on magnitudes of maximum tensile forces at the service load condition. The locus of maximum tensile forces at the failure condition was found to be Y-shaped. Geogrid reinforcement parameters have little effect on the Y-shaped locus of the maximum tensile forces when no secondary reinforcement layers are included, backfill soil shear strength parameters have moderate effects, and abutment geometry parameters have significant effects.