Cross-modal transfer in 6-month-old infants.

Investigated in 4 studies with 101 infants 25.5–32 wks of age the ability of Ss to transfer information about shape across modalities. Ss were familiarized either orally or tactually and then tested for visual recognition memory. In Exp I, Ss failed to show evidence of cross-modal transfer on any of the tasks (1 oral–visual, 2 tactual–visual). When familiarization times were increased from 30 to 60 sec in Exp II, Ss showed evidence of transfer on both tactual–visual tasks. Exp III eliminated the 5–7 sec delay that generally intervenes between the familiarization and test phase. Ss were permitted to retain the stimulus in their hand (or mouth) during the test phase while simultaneously viewing a novel stimulus and a duplicate of the familiar stimulus. This modification resulted in successful transfer on 1 of the 2 tactual–visual tasks. Ss did not show evidence of transfer on the oral–visual problem in any of these studies, despite evidence from Exp IV that they could visually discriminate the paired stimuli used in these tasks and that they showed recognition memory when familiarization and testing were both visual. Results suggest that, although cross-modal transfer of information about shape is present among 6-mo-olds, it is a less robust phenomenon than that seen in older infants. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of familiarization time on visual recognition memory in infant pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina).

Used the familiarization-novelty procedure in 2 experiments to examine the effects of study time on visual recognition memory in 34 infant pigtailed macaques. In Exp I, Ss were familiarized with abstract black-and-white patterns for 10 sec. They then were given a test trial in which the familiar stimulus was paired with a novel one. Results show that during the test trial, Ss directed significantly more visual attention toward the novel stimulus, a finding that provides evidence for recognition memory. In Exp II, a different group of Ss was familiarized with abstract black-and-white patterns for 1, 5, and 10 sec. Ss demonstrated recognition after the 10-sec familiarization period. Ss older than 6 wks of age at test also demonstrated recognition after the 5-sec study time, a finding that is consistent with the hypothetical 4:1 ratio between macaque and human infant development of some basic sensory, perceptual, and cognitive processes. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of object movement on infants' decision of object structure.

Explored the 6-mo-old's ability to recognize an object in a new orientation after being familiarized with the object while it was moving. In Exp I with a total of 58 Ss, there were 4 experimental conditions in which the object moved in different ways during familiarization and a control in which movement was minimal. The Ss in 3 of the movement conditions showed significant differentiation between the novel and familiar objects, whereas Ss in the control group did not, suggesting that movement does facilitate recognition. In the condition in which the infants could observe continuous transformations from one orientation to the next, there was no significant differentiation; the data suggest that the apparent difficulty in this case was due, in general, to the complexity of the movement and, in particular, to rotation. Translatory movement seemed to be the most effective in helping the Ss learn to recognize the object regardless of its orientation. Exp II, with 24 Ss, confirmed that 6-mo-olds learn or detect an object's structure faster during translation than during rotation. The role of optical change in the detection of an object's invariant structure is discussed. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perception of relational invariants by newborns.

Two studies investigated (1) the ability of 40 newborns (aged less than 1 wk) to detect relational invariants (Exp I) and (2) whether infants perceive stimulus elements as a single pattern of figures rather than as 2 discrete figures in relationship (Exp II). In Exp I, Ss were evaluated in a habituation-recovery paradigm for evidence of the ability to detect an invariant identity or nonidentity relationship between components of a visual stimulus. Ss who were initially habituated to stimuli consisting of 2 identical elements recovered fixation when the elements were rearranged to be dissimilar and vice versa. Control Ss who continued to see the familiarized stimuli at test yielded no recovery. To determine whether Ss might have perceived the stimulus elements as a single pattern of figures rather than as 2 discrete figures in relationship, a 2nd study was conducted in which circles that enclosed each element (and which were presumed to unitize each) were removed at test. Because Ss in this condition recovered responding at test, it was concluded that the circles had been visible in the 1st experiment and that the elements may thus have been perceived as discrete. Overall findings are consistent with the Gibsonian view that infants are inherently disposed to detect invariant, higher-order relational information (i.e., information that specifies significant objective properties of the environment). (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spatial and temporal congruity and auditory–visual integration in infants.

The influence of the spatial and temporal relation of auditory and visual stimuli on 6-mo-old infants' perception of these stimuli as attributes of a common object was explored in 4 studies. In Exp I, after familiarization with an object that moved in synchrony with a periodic sound coming from it, the 89 Ss associated the object and sound; they looked more at the familiar than a novel object in the presence of the familiar sound, but not in the presence of a novel sound. Exp II with 22 Ss showed evidence for association following experience in which an object and sound were spatially congruent but exhibited a form of temporal incongruity (continuous movement and periodic sound). In contrast, no evidence of auditory–visual association was shown after familiarization in which the object and sound were temporally congruent but spatially incongruent (Exp III; 21 Ss) or in which object and sound were spatially congruent but exhibited a different form of temporal incongruity (periodic movement and continuous sound; Exp IV with 23 Ss). (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of cross-modal recognition in infant pigtail monkeys (Macaca nemestrina).

Examined the development of cross-modal recognition in 48 infant pigtail monkeys in 2 studies by using an adaptation of the visual preference technique. Ss were first familiarized orally with pacifiers of 1 of 2 shapes and were then tested on corresponding visual stimuli. In a cross-sectional experiment (Exp I), Ss under 200 days postconception at test (approximately 4 postnatal weeks) showed a visual preference for the orally familiar stimuli, which provided evidence for cross-modal recognition. Ss over 200 days postconception at test showed a visual preference for 1 of the test stimuli, which made their data uninterpretable with respect to cross-modal abilities. In a longitudinal experiment (Exp II), Ss were tested once when they were younger than 200 days postconception and once when they were older. When young, they showed a visual preference for the orally familiar stimuli. When older, they showed a visual preference for the same test stimuli found for the cross-sectional Ss. Results are discussed relative to human infant cross-modal data obtained by similar procedures. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Need for social approval as a predictor of the strategic and outcome aspects of bargaining behaviour in asymmetric power situations: An interactionist approach.

Investigated the effects of need for social approval (NAP) on the outcome (Exp. I) and strategic (Exp. II) aspects of bargaining in 2 mixed-motive nonconstant sum games. An interactionist approach was adopted in that (a) the possible attenuating effects of a contextual variable (differential bargaining power) were examined; and (b) face-to-face open communication was permitted. Exp. I, with 64 male and female undergraduates, shows that low-NAP Ss obtained higher final outcomes than high-NAP Ss only when the former were in the low-power position. Results of Exp. II, with 32 male Ss, support the following conclusions: (a) in the high power position, high-NAP Ss (as opposed to low-NAP Ss) adopt a softer initial bid strategy, exhibit a higher overall level of offers, and reach agreements that yielded them a smaller dyadic profit difference; and (b) in the low-power position, personality differences in NAP do not, as predicted, have a significant effect on strategies employed or final outcomes attained. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

New method for studying semantic encoding in children.

Used a familiarization procedure in 2 experiments investigating word encoding in 40 2nd and 40 6th graders. Previous studies using release from proactive inhibition have indicated that developmental changes on some encoding dimensions occur during this period. It is argued that the dependence of release from proactive inhibition on deliberate recall decreases its pertinence to the process of encoding. Exp I confirmed previous findings that the taxonomic classes animals and body parts are encoded by Ss in both grades. Exp II revealed that Ss in both grades also encode the evaluative connotation of words, a finding that has previously emerged only inconsistently. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-modal transfer and information processing by the sense of touch in infancy.

136 1-yr-old infants were tested on tasks of visual–tactual cross-modal transfer and tactual intramodal processing. In Exp I, Ss successfully differentiated novel from familiar objects by tactual exploration after 60 sec of either visual familiarization (V–T) or 60 sec of tactual familiarization (T–T); all testing that involved tactual exploration was carried out in total darkness, using infrared videotaping. In both tasks, Ss spent significantly more time manipulating novel than familiar shapes. In the T–T task they also engaged in more manipulatory episodes and exhibited more hand-to-hand transfers with the novel shapes. Neither type of transfer was shown with shorter (30-sec) familiarization periods. The finding of successful T–T transfer with 60-sec familiarization was confirmed in Exp II using different stimuli and a modified testing procedure. In both experiments there was evidence that T–T processing surpassed V–T transfer. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intermediate-size transposition and children's operational level.

Three experiments with a total of 170 children aged 4 yrs 8 mo–7 yrs 5 mo examined the relationship between intermediate-size transposition and operational level. In each experiment, concrete and preoperational Ss were identified by Piagetian tasks. In Exp I, half of the Ss received single-problem training and the other half multiple-problem training, followed by a far test of transposition. Exp II was similar to the multiple-training condition, but all Ss could verbalize and understand the concept "middle size." Exp III differed from Exp II in providing a test of near transposition after single-problem training. It was found that logical abilities as well as perceptual factors are involved in transposition performance. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stimulus specificity of physiological response to stress and the Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern.

Conducted 2 experiments with male undergraduates to determine the influence of stimulus specificity on differences in physiological response to stress of coronary-prone (Type A) and noncoronary-prone (Type B [Jenkins Activity Survey]) individuals. In Exp I, a RT task was presented to 51 Ss with and without stress relevant to the Type A behavior pattern. The physiological responses of Type A Ss were greater in the relevant stress compared to the neutral task condition, but responses of Type B Ss were similar in the 2 conditions. In Exp II, 25 Type A and Type B Ss performed a stressful task that was not theoretically relevant to the Type A behavior pattern. Physiological response elevations were found for both groups, but as predicted, there were no differences between Type A and Type B Ss. Results support the discriminant validity of the Type A construct and provide additional evidence for the role of physiological response differences as mediators of the behavior-pattern–disease relationship. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of pattern recognition in infant pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina).

Examined the development of pattern recognition in 31 infant pigtailed macaques using the familiarization–novelty technique. Ss were familiarized with 2 identical black and white patterns and tested on the familiar pattern paired with a novel one. Cross-sectional data revealed that a novelty preference occurred with increasing age. Younger Ss (mean age 178 days postconception or 1 postnatal week) did not show a reliable visual preference for either the novel or the familiar patterns. Infants with a mean age of 203.2 days postconception (about 4 postnatal weeks) fixated novel patterns significantly longer than familiar ones. Data suggest that by 200 days postconception, infant macaques are able to remember some aspects of previously exposed stimuli and will perform consistently on a familiarization–novelty task. Results are discussed in relation to the development of human infant pattern-recognition abilities. Pigtailed macaques provide an excellent model for the investigation of human infant recognition memory, 1 wk of maturation in the pigtailed infant being equivalent to 1 mo in the human. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dispensability of member effort and group motivation losses: Free-rider effects.

Three experiments tested the hypothesis that group members exert less effort as the perceived dispensability of their efforts for group success increases. The resultant motivation losses were termed "free-rider effects." In Exp I, 189 undergraduates of high or low ability performed in 2-, 4-, or 8-person groups at tasks with additive, conjunctive, or disjunctive demands. As predicted, member ability had opposite effects on effort under disjunctive and conjunctive task demands. The failure to obtain a relationship between group size and member effort in Exp I was attributed to a procedural artifact eliminated in Exp II (73 Ss). As predicted, as groups performing conjunctive and disjunctive tasks increased in size, member motivation declined. This was not a social loafing effect; group members were fully identifiable at every group size. Exp III (108 Ss) explored the role that performance feedback plays in informing group members of the dispensability of their efforts and encouraging free riding. Results are generally consistent with those of Exps I and II. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of performance attributions on others' perceptions of the attributor.

Two studies investigated the effects that performers' attributions actually have on others' impressions. 441 undergraduates served as Ss. "Self-serving" internal attributions for success and external attributions for failure produced slightly higher ability evaluations than did the opposite pattern in 1 of the 2 experiments. However, in both experiments, these self-serving attributions produced lower ratings on a modesty dimension. External attributions were also perceived as relatively dishonest for all Ss in Exp I and for unsuccessful Ss in Exp II. Publicity (Exp I) and task variables (Exp II) did not affect ability, modesty, or honesty judgments made from performance attributions but did strongly affect the influence these dimensions had on overall likability evaluations. In general, Ss who made internal attributions tended to be better liked than those who made external attributions. The implications and limitations of these results are discussed relative to self-presentational considerations. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cache recovery and spatial memory in Clark's nutcrackers (Nucifraga columbiana).

Clark's nutcrackers cache pine seeds and recover them months later. Four experiments with 5 nutcrackers tested their ability to relocate their caches when the cache sites were selected by the experimenters. During Exp I, Ss had 18 cache sites available during each of 3 caching sessions, followed 10 days later by 4 recovery sessions. Recovery performance was above chance, and there were frequent revisits to previously emptied cache sites. During Exp II, hunger level (manipulated by prefeeding) had no effect on recovery accuracy. During Exp III, Ss were released into the experimental room with no seeds present. Probing behavior was directed at the old cache sites of Exp I and especially of Exp II. During Exp IV, the number of holes available during caching sessions had no effect on the accuracy of 3 of the 4 Ss. Findings suggest that spatial memory is a primary mechanism by which nutcrackers locate their caches. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A structure-mapping model for word problems.

Tested predictions of a structure-mapping model for word problems in 4 experiments involving 132 undergraduates. In Exps I and II, Ss rated the potential usefulness of solutions for pairs of problems—mixture problems in Exp I and work problems in Exp II. The problems were either equivalent (same story, same procedure), similar (same story, different procedure), isomorphic (different story, same procedure), or unrelated (different story, different procedure). Ss in Exp III used an example solution for a work problem and a mixture problem to generate equations to related test problems that differed in their mappings from the example. In Exp IV, Ss matched concepts in the test problems to corresponding concepts in the examples to provide a direct measure of their ability to construct mappings across different problems. In Exps III and IV, Ss performed significantly better on isomorphic problems than on similar problems, and significantly better on work isomorphs than on mixture isomorphs. Results suggest that a structure-mapping model that emphasizes the transparency and structure of the mapping can be used to predict the usefulness of a solution. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contingency judgments by depressed college students: Sadder but not always wiser.

Three experiments with 296 undergraduates examined depressed and nondepressed (Beck Depression Inventory) Ss' perceptions of control over outcomes in a task similar to the one introduced by L. B. Alloy and L. Y. Abramson (see record 1981-02686-001). In Exp I, when Ss completed a contingency learning task with no one else present, nondepressed Ss perceived themselves to have more control over frequently occurring response-independent outcomes than did depressed Ss, which replicated Alloy and Abramson's finding. When Ss completed the task in the presence of an observer, depressed students perceived themselves to have more control than did nondepressed Ss. In Exp II, the observer effects found in Exp I were replicated; the present authors also showed that, when response-independent outcomes occurred relatively infrequently, depressed and nondepressed Ss who completed the task in the presence of an observer did not reliably differ in their estimates of personal control. In Exp III, the pattern of results found in Exps I and II was replicated under conditions in which observers were present while Ss received frequently occurring outcomes. Overall findings demonstrate that the consistently accurate personal control estimates of depressed Ss that have been found across a variety of situations break down when Ss complete a contingency learning task in the presence of an observer, and outcomes occur independently of response at a high frequency. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential attributional feedback and children's achievement behaviors.

Determined how the sequence of ability and effort attributional feedback influenced task motivation, attributions for success, self-efficacy, and skillful performance in 80 elementary school Ss (aged 8 yrs 2 mo to 10 yrs 5 mo) in 2 experiments. In Exp I, 40 Ss lacking subtraction skills received training and problem-solved over 4 sessions. During the problem solving, Group 1 (ability-ability) periodically received ability feedback; Group 2 (effort-effort) received little effort feedback; Group 3 (ability-effort) was given ability feedback during the 1st 2 sessions and effort feedback during the last 2; Group 4 (effort-ability) had this sequence reversed. In Exp II, 40 Ss (chosen with the same criteria as in Exp I) followed the same procedures except they were asked about their perceptions of success or failure following training. Results for both experiments show that Ss in Groups 1 and 3 developed higher ability attributions, self-efficacy, and subtraction skills compared with Ss in Groups 2 and 4. The sequence of attributional feedback did not differentially affect motivation, effort attributions, or perceptions of training successes. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory processes and evoked potentials.

Reviews research on memory and evoked potentials (EPs) and presents new experimental data in which a storage component of the EP was identified. In Exp I, Ss performed information-processing operations on number and letter comparison tasks under 16 conditions varying stimulus, position, and relevance while EEGs were taken. In Exp II, 52 Ss were tested for short-term recall under the same 16 conditions. From Exp I, an EP storage component with a poststimulus maximum about 250 msec was found to be related to the storage of stimulus information in short-term memory. The storage component results led to a memory prediction that was substantiated in Exp II. Recall was not as closely related to 2 other, orthogonal EP components (P??? and CNV). Retrieval from and storage in short-term memory are discussed. Memory scanning rate derived from P??? latency changes with memory set size are faster than, but comparable to, RT estimates. An EP experiment dealing with levels of processing and memory is discussed, and a schematic model of some aspects of EPs that may be related to memory processes is presented. (French abstract) (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)