Methodological considerations in Rorschach research.

Research with the Rorschach Inkblot Method should be conducted according to the same general principles of research design that guide other investigative efforts in psychological science. However, the nature of the Rorschach as a relatively unstructured measure of personality functioning calls for special attention to certain aspects of selecting research participants, choosing variables, and collecting and analyzing data. The present article delineates how such methodological considerations can enhance prospects for obtaining statistically significant and substantively meaningful results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological considerations in clinical neuropsychological research.

Discusses methodological problems and issues in clinical neuropsychological research for 4 types of neuropsychological studies: (a) differential diagnosis, (b) basic brain–behavior relationships, (c) effects of noxious agents or factors on brain–behavior relationships, and (d) rehabilitation of neuropsychological deficits. Five independent variables that may or may not affect such studies are discussed: age, education, sex, socioeconomic status, and experimenter or examiner characteristics. Recommendations for handling these methodological problems are made, and the characteristics of good case study reports are presented. (52 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological considerations in the assessment of depression in alcoholics.

Depression in 185 male (mean age 38.8 yrs) and 65 female (mean age 37.4 yrs) alcoholics was diagnosed by the DSM-III, the MMPI D scale, and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). The number of Ss diagnosed as depressed varied considerably according to the method used. The MMPI D scale classified the largest number of alcoholics as depressed (62%), followed by the BDI (54%), and the DSM-III (27%). The MMPI and the BDI were highly correlated, but both showed only a modest relationship with the DSM-III. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological considerations in the evaluation of a teacher-training program.

Investigated the effects of 3 types of teacher training on graduate teaching assistants' (TAs) teaching behavior, perception of teaching ability, and ratings of effectiveness by their students. In addition, the effects of response-shift bias, an instrumentation-related problem, were examined to ascertain if this source of contamination was operating in the evaluation of this educational program. 38 TAs participated in the training. The training produced significant changes in the trained TAs' teaching behavior, self-ratings of teaching ability, and student ratings of instruction relative to the no-treatment control group. Response-shift bias was noted in the self-reports and controlled through the collection of retrospective pretests. Implications and methodological considerations for future teacher-training programs are discussed. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological considerations in the refinement of clinical assessment instruments.

Instrument refinement refers to any set of procedures designed to improve an instrument's representation of a construct. Though often neglected, it is essential to the development of reliable and valid measures. Five objectives of instrument refinement are proposed: identification of measures' hierarchical or aggregational structure, establishment of internal consistency of undimensional facets of measures, determination of content homogeneity of undimensional facets, inclusion of items that discriminate at the desired level of attribute intensity, and replication of instrument properties on an independent sample. The use of abbreviated scales is not recommended. The refinement of behavioral observation procedures is discussed, and the role of measure refinement in theory development is emphasized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological considerations in the construct validation of drive-oriented scales.

"Experimental studies directed at establishing the construct validity of D-oriented scales, such as the Taylor MAS, are beset with theoretical and methodological problems that make it difficult to interpret their results… . As a partial answer to these problems, the writers contend that studies employing verbal tasks should require a prior demonstration of comparability of the task for extreme groups identified by D scale performance. This need is dictated by the emphasis placed on the interaction between D level and intratask competition in contemporary D theory." Performance of high and low D groups should be compared with groups representing clearly defined experimentally induced motivational states who would serve as a baseline for determining the construct validity of a D-oriented scale. 26 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological considerations in treatment outcome research on obesity.

Identifies methodological problems in treatment research on obesity. The importance of multiple measurement of outcome, including appropriate assessment of weight, activity, and relevant physical, emotional, and social indices of adjustment, is emphasized. Traditional evaluation criteria need to be broadened to encompass factors such as cost effectiveness of treatment. The relative merits of alternative single-S and between-groups experimental designs are discussed, the latter including the treatment package, constructive, dismantling, and comparative research strategies. Ways of controlling for non-specific treatment influences are reviewed, and the contribution of client and therapist variables to outcome are mentioned. The reasons for conspicuous lack of long-term follow-ups are analyzed, and recommendations for reducing S attrition during treatment and follow-up are advanced. (80 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Investigations of interhemispheric processing: Methodological considerations.

This article is a review and critique of a number of methodological issues pertaining to investigations of information exchange and coordination between the cerebral hemispheres. The methods required to address issues of interhemispheric interaction are demonstrated to be distinct from those typically used in studies of lateralization of function. Methodology in this area is examined in reference to three main topics: (a) the requirements for illustrating that an effect is specific to the interaction of the hemispheres, (b) the requirements for demonstrating that interhemispheric processing relies on a particular neural substrates, and (c) the requirements for making inferences about the role of interhemispheric processing in certain neurobehavioral syndromes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological considerations in behavioral toxicology in infants and children.

The effect of exposure to neurotoxic substances on cognitive and behavioral development has become an important research focus within developmental psychology in recent years. Research design considerations are critically important in these studies, because random assignment and experimental control of extraneous influences are not possible and effects are often subtle and not seen in every exposed individual. Oversampling from the most highly exposed individuals is usually needed to ensure detection of toxic effects. Valid and reliable assessment must be made of important potential confounders, yet control variables must not be so confounded with exposure as to obscure toxic effects. In the assessment of developmental outcome, apical measures may provide the greatest sensitivity, and narrow-band tests, more information about the specific nature of the impairment. Dose-response analyses can help determine the lowest exposure levels at which deficits are seen ("thresholds"). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological considerations in the assessment of acquiescence in the MA and SD scale.

This paper cites certain limitations in making assessment of acquiescence in personality scales by the use of reversed items and the Helmstadter technique. Inadequate item reversals may have contributed to the interpretation by Adams and Kirby (1936) that the SD scale was confounded with acquiescence, a finding not supported here when original items only are used. A criterion of adequate reversal, derived from SD research, may aid in developing "balanced" scales. Precautions in making acquiescence interpretations from the Helmstadter model include the confounding of content and set scores in the formulas, the confounding of response style and trait responses, lack of evidence on what the set score measures, and the uncertainty over the nature of acquiescence and how to measure it. (27 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological considerations in clinical neuropsychological research: 17 years later.

Research in clinical neuropsychology continues to flourish. Over the past 17 years, the field has embraced advances in structural and functional neuroimaging techniques, theoretical constructs, and statistical models in attempts to improve the quality and generalizability of its research efforts. With keen attention to methodological issues and careful consideration of broad hypotheses and underlying concepts, research in this field can continue to meet the needs of practicing clinicians and the rigorous requirements of scientific inquiry. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individualized outcome measures of internal change: Methodological considerations.

Argues that in measuring the internal changes associated with psychotherapy outcome, most researchers have relied on indices of inferred change that lack consensual meaning, or are insensitive, or unreliable. Issues related to the selection of assessment procedures, the scaling of assessment devices, the computation of difference or change scores, and the translation of these scores into common indices of outcome are explored. Suggestions are provided for refining the measurement of inferred states in psychotherapy outcome research. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Health as a value: Methodological and theoretical considerations.

Presents a 4-item Likert scale to measure the value placed on health and reports norms from 5 diverse populations (97 11–16 yr old girls, 95 of their parents, 74 ulcer patients, 1,026 undergraduates, and 940 of their parents). Results show that health value increased with age among girls until late adolescence. Middle-aged women placed a higher value on health than did middle-aged men. Both health locus-of-control beliefs and beliefs in the efficacy of certain preventive health behaviors correlated more highly with the performance of those behaviors 5–9 mo later among Ss who placed a high value of health relative to those who did not value health so highly when it could be safely assumed that health was the primary value underlying the behavior. The importance of considering a variety of values in addition to health as possible motivators of preventive health behavior is stressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological considerations in calculation of the trough: peak ratio

AIM: The Food and Drug Administration in the United States has published guidelines which indicate that a minimum trough: peak ratio of 50-66% is required for the efficacy of an antihypertensive drug to be considered satisfactory in relation to its proposed dosage interval. However, these guidelines do not give any definition of the most appropriate methodology, and published data contain widely disparate values which often reflect methodological inconsistencies. This article attempts to define the principal methodological requirements for the accurate and reproducible measurement of trough and peak antihypertensive effects and for calculation of the trough: peak ratio. PROBLEMS IN CALCULATING THE TROUGH:PEAK RATIO: It is essential to take account of the antihypertensive effect of placebo, otherwise the results may be spurious. Similarly, account must be taken of the closely related circadian variability in blood pressure, which is particularly likely to compromise the interpretation of the peak effect. While the incorporation of placebo in a randomly allocated, crossover design is ideal, there are practical (and ethical) difficulties with this approach. CONCLUSIONS: Provided there is an adequate placebo run-in period (of not less than 4 weeks) and individual patients are studied under carefully standardized conditions, with multiple blood pressure recordings throughout the dose interval, it is possible by means of a sequential, placebo-active treatment design to calculate the trough: peak ratio with acceptable accuracy and reproducibility.     

Differential hemispheric processing of faces: Methodological considerations and reinterpretation.

Examines the procedures and stimuli (physiognomies) used in lateralized face recognition experiments with normal Ss, as well as in related perceptual and identification experiments. Results reveal that in general a left visual field (right hemisphere) advantage is obtained when: (a) stimulus information is degraded; (b) faces to be compared are highly discriminable; (c) set of unfamiliar faces is used; and (d) task requirements allow a lax criterion of recognition. These conditions seem to make holistic processing adequate for the task; if the conditions require analytic judgments, then a right visual field (left hemisphere) advantage may be obtained. Thus, no hemifield has an inherent or absolute advantage and these procedural conditions may critically determine what hemifield advantage is observed in any given experiment with faces (or other types of stimuli). Apparently, both hemispheres may contribute to the processing of faces but their contributions vary as a function of task demands. A right hemisphere advantage may reflect an enhanced role of the processes of configuration, completion, categorization, or set. A left hemisphere advantage need not involve the language function but it may reflect a genuine visuospatial contribution. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological considerations in validating computer-based test interpretations: Controlling for response bias.

Although computer-based test interpretation (CBTI) systems have been operational for nearly 25 years, their availability and adoption in routine clinical practice have grown exponentially in recent years. This article addresses methodological considerations in CBTI validation studies, emphasizing those design issues relevant to customer satisfaction studies. Specifically, issues of response bias are addressed as they relate to selection of raters and test respondents, use of random reports as a "control" for spurious ratings of report validity, and both the format and content of ratings. Deficiencies of various studies from the research literature are reviewed, and advantages and limitations of design alternatives are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the attractiveness of forbidden objects.

Toys were ranked for attractiveness by 15 preschool and 21 4th-grade children. After the initial ranking, the S was told that he could not play with one of the toys. Each toy was subsequently ranked a 2nd time. Results show a strong decrease in the attractiveness of the forbidden toy by preschoolers, but an increase in attractiveness was exhibited by 4th graders. Results suggest that a perceived association between an object's being forbidden and its attractiveness may be learned through the course of socialization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The status of family and marital therapy outcomes: Methodological and substantive considerations.

Examines the family and marital therapy outcome literature with respect to the extent of knowledge consensus and the status of methodological adequacy. Methodological limitations of tentative trends favoring brief structured therapy approaches such as behavior modification and crisis intervention are discussed. The nature of family therapy research and some reasons for the apparent failure of contemporary research to adequately respond to issues addressed in the literature are also examined. It is concluded that research remains inadequate, both in quality and quantity, for the purpose of resolving the practical problems of clinicians and counselors faced with the complex dimensions of therapy. Basic suggestions for improvements and new directions in the area are offered, including the increased involvement of research psychologists with practitioners. (French summary) (65 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological findings and considerations in measuring colorectal epithelial cell proliferation in humans

The methodological issues for measuring colorectal epithelial cell proliferation, an intermediate end point for studies of colon neoplasia, in epidemiological studies are deceptively numerous and complex, with few methodological data available. Accordingly, during our experience with measuring colorectal epithelial cell proliferation from nearly 500 participants attending over 1300 study visits over a 6-year period, we recorded data on a variety of measurement variations. Methods investigated included rectal biopsy technique, general histological and labeling procedures [including the tritiated thymidine, 5-bromodeoxyuridine (BrdUrd), and the proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) immunohistochemical techniques used to label S-phase cells in colonic crypts in rectal biopsy specimens], biopsy scoring procedures, and summary scoring methods. Findings include that the PCNA technique was the simplest, most economical, and least time-consuming. The BrdUrd labeling failure rate was 15% versus < 1% for PCNA. The percentage of labeled cells (labeling index) was highest using PCNA in biopsies processed without prior incubation, intermediate using PCNA in biopsies processed with prior incubation as for BrdUrd, and lowest using BrdUrd. The percentage of labeled cells that were in the upper 40% of the crypt (phi h) was higher using BrdUrd than PCNA; visit-to-visit correlations were higher using PCNA (r = 0.51 versus 0.35), and visit-to-visit variability was lower and between-person variability was higher using PCNA. Intra- and inter-rater reliabilities for the techniques were comparable (PCNA intra-rater r = 0.93, inter-rater r = 0.92). The PCNA technique, compared to the BrdUrd technique, is more feasible and reliable, provides a more accurate estimate of the labeling index, and cell proliferation measures determined with PCNA have statistical properties that are generally more favorable for detecting differences in clinical trials. Thus, the PCNA technique may be preferable to techniques requiring incubation of biopsies. Other methodological findings lead us to recommend that, for larger studies measuring colorectal epithelial cell proliferation on outpatient rectal biopsies, biopsies should be taken 10 cm above the anus using a flexible, preferably jumbo cup, endoscopic forceps through a rigid sigmoidoscope, and histological sections should be 3 microns thick taken 50 microns apart.     

Bodily concerns as predicted by the Wechsler Object Assembly and Picture Completion Subtests: Methodological considerations.

Evaluates a report by D. J. Stewart et al (see record 1973-31381-001) of a failure to find a positive relationship between low Object Assembly scores on the WAIS and bodily concerns when the MMPI Hs scale was used in place of projective test data. Substitution of a more appropriate method of data analysis rather than the use of a more appropriate criterion measure (as was assumed) is seen to account for the failure to replicate previous research findings. This approach was extended in the present study with 73 psychiatric inpatients to the WAIS Picture Completion subtest; however, no significant group differences were found on Hs, regardless of the method of data analysis. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)