Urban sprawl and land conversion in post-socialist cities: The case of metropolitan Budapest

Former state-socialist cities were described by the literature as compact and relatively dense urban forms. However, the political transition of 1989–90 has changed the spatial characteristics of these cities, partly due to urban sprawl. Yet, we do not know if such a phenomenon as “sprawl” did exist before 1989. The main aim of this paper is to assess urban expansion in the metropolitan region of Budapest during state-socialism and after the political changes, and measure the intensity of urban sprawl. The main thesis is that urban sprawl did not start with the advent of market forces in 1989–90, but it was already present during state-socialism, however the tempo of sprawl was considerably increased by suburbanization, the dominant form of urban expansion, after 1990. In order to explore the longitudinal land use changes in the Budapest metropolitan region we analyse standardised databases and maps (e.g. military topographic map from 1959, Corine Land Cover database from 1990 and European Urban Atlas from 2012). The discussion is focused, on the one hand, on the growth of urbanized land as an outcome of urban sprawl and the main underpinning factors in different epochs and, on the other hand, on the main driving forces of suburbanization and sprawl. Research results clearly show that urban sprawl has intensified around Budapest after the political changes. This was the result of a complex interplay of socio-economic and political factors, a process driven by the free movement of residents, firms, as well as the reshuffle of the regulatory framework. The study demonstrates that urban sprawl has several negative impacts on social, economic and environmental sustainability in the investigated metropolitan region, which is in line with findings of the literature.     

The process of suburbanization in the agglomeration of Budapest

One of the major developments in post-socialist cities is the increasing outflow of people from the city to the surrounding settlements. Budapest is a case in point. The agglomeration used to receive migrants coming to live and work in the capital (i.e., rural urbanization). After the political and economic changes of the 1980s and 1990s, the suburban area around Budapest has received people moving out of the city. Macro statistics from the Hungarian Statistical Office show that suburbanization is unevenly spread over the agglomeration. Some settlements have a dynamic building policy and a growing population, while other settlements have moderate building programmes and a stagnating or even declining population. This pattern cannot be explained simply by preferences—i.e., where people would like to live. More precise explanations can be based upon housing construction opportunities, availability of building sites, and the attitude of local governments towards suburban development. This paper is based on analyses of micro data derived from the Budapest Agglomeration household survey, conducted in July 1997. Our results show that suburbanization around Budapest is spatially a highly segregated process. Higher-status people and lower-status people have different destinations and tend to cluster in homogeneous areas, as they did in the city. Suburbanization seems to be a radial process; people tend to cross the city boundary at the shortest distance and settle in one of the nearest settlements. The moves from the city to the suburbs are initiated by the desire to adapt the housing and neighbourhood situations to the aspirations of the household. The change of job is less important as a reason. Job motives, however, are important for households moving into the agglomeration from elsewhere. This rural urbanization process is rather strong in the Eastern zone, implying that rural urbanization has not come to an end. Drs. Herman Kok is real estate consultant with NEI-Kolpron International BV and is assigned to Kolpron Budapest Ltd. Dr. Zoltán Kovács is senior researcher at the Geographical Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.     

Incorporating agglomeration economies in transport cost-benefit analysis: The case of the proposed light-rail transit in the Tel-Aviv metropolitan area

Abstract.  The economic evaluation of transport projects relies primarily on the impact of the project on road users. Economic benefits are calculated from a reduction in the aggregate value of time saved by the users, as well as from savings on vehicle-operation and maintenance costs, reducion in traffic accidents, and more recently the negative environmental impacts that ensued. Most often the analysis assumes fixed demand. Major mass-transit systems, like the new Light Rail Transit (LRT) currently proposed for the Tel-Aviv Metropolitan Area (TAMA) in Israel, are expected to generate substantial new (induced) traffic. This development will most likely enhance the agglomeration forces at work in major urban concentrations. Agglomeration economies could lead to an upward shift in the production function of the metropolitan area, thus generating substantial additional benefits for the transport project. This article presents the methodology used to estimate the benefits derived from agglomeration economies induced by the aforementioned proposed new LRT in the TAMA. An estimate is made of the increase in the number of employees in the CBD owing to the proposed LRT and their potential contribution to the total annual production of the CBD. Agglomeration economies could add a significant amount of additional benefit to the transport project. In our case study the extent of these benefits increased the benefit-cost ratio from 1.15 to 1.40.     

The determinants of agglomeration for the manufacturing sector in the Istanbul metropolitan area

This paper examines the determinants of agglomeration by seeking the patterns of urbanization economies and localization economies in the Istanbul metropolitan area (IMA). The research is developed in two steps. The first step is the measurement of concentration levels for the IMA; the Ellison–Glaeser localization index (EGI) is applied to the 22 manufacturing sector (2-digit level) at three different geographical levels. The second step is to determine the structural pattern of agglomeration. By regressing the Ellison–Glaeser localization index values on proxies for urbanization and localization economies, the determinants of agglomeration are demonstrated. The determinants of agglomeration are estimated by 12 different two-stage OLS regressions. While three of these regressions represent the agglomeration factors at each geographical level, the other nine equations represent the agglomeration factors at the industry-specific level. The results suggest that urbanization economies have a strong effect on agglomeration both at the geographical level and industry-specific level. It is noticed that density, market area potential, and labor market potential are the most effective proxies for urbanization economies on agglomeration. The effects of localization economies are consistent with Marshall for labor pooling and manufactured input. However, the results do not provide any evidence that knowledge spillovers have an influence on agglomeration in this case.     

The bright side of MAUP: Defining new measures of industrial agglomeration*

We present two new methodologies which exploit the ‘bright side’ of the modifiable areal unit problem. The first one produces an estimate of industrial agglomeration which significantly improves on existing indices; the second one provides a ranking of industries according to their responsiveness to labour market determinants of agglomeration. An empirical application based on US data shows that those industries which are highly dependent on the labour market in choosing their location are a mix of low and high skill sectors. Furthermore, we find that labour market determinants explain around one quarter of the variation of spatial agglomeration across industries. Resumen. Presentamos dos metodologías nuevas que hacen uso del “lado bueno” del problema de la unidad espacial modificable. La primera produce una estimación de la aglomeración industrial que mejora de manera significativa los índices existentes y la segunda proporciona una clasificación de las industrias en función de su capacidad de respuesta a determinantes de aglomeración para el mercado laboral. La aplicación empírica de estas metodologías con datos de los EE.UU. muestra que las industrias que dependen fuertemente del mercado laboral a la hora de elegir su ubicación forman una mezcla de sectores tanto de alta como de baja cualificación. Asimismo, observamos que los determinantes del mercado laboral explican aproximadamente una cuarta parte de la variación de la aglomeración espacial entre industrias.      

柳州市产业转移对都市区空间格局的影响

基于柳州市新型城镇化发展思路,并结合柳州市产业与空间分布现状,分析了柳州市产业转移的方向与未来产业格局,探讨了产业转移对都市区未来形成“一心四城”空间格局的影响,为柳州市的城市规划提供了依据。     

产业集群与农村城镇化的互动关系研究

一，产业集群和农村城镇化 （一）产业集群产业集群是指在某一产业领域相互关联的企业及其支撑体系在一定区域内大量集群发展而形成具有持续竞争优势的经济群落。     

Quantitative contrast of urban agglomeration colors based on image clustering algorithm: Case study of the Xia-Zhang-Quan metropolitan area

Color is an important element to consider when shaping urban characteristics. However, previous studies seldom included quantitative analyses of color relationships between urban agglomerations within proximal regions and with similar cultures to distinguish and shape individual urban personalities. This study focused on Xiamen, Zhangzhou, and Quanzhou metropolitan areas, which are influenced by Minnan culture, and collected natural and cultural landscape network images that collectively represent the urban landscape in China. Color extraction, computer vision processing technologies, and clustering algorithms, such as k-means partitioning, hierarchical methods, and co-occurrence frequency, were applied using image recognition. We then established an urban color database and quantified color attributes. Finally, we conducted a comparative analysis of dominant colors and color combination associations in Xiamen, Zhangzhou, and Quanzhou metropolitan areas to explore their similarities and differences and define their characteristics. We also considered other cities of the same type for comparison.     

Gender in metropolitan development strategies: the case of Durban.

The author describes her experiences with the Durban Development Forum (DDF) and the strategies used in the Durban Functional Region (DFR) of South Africa. Policies are generally concerned with low income people, spatial distribution, and the organization of development and only partially concerned with gender issues. This paper discusses general urban development strategies in South Africa, gives an overview of the position of women in the DFR, and the strategies of the DDF. Prior to 1994 urban development plans focused on righting the inequalities and inefficiencies of apartheid cities, promotion of local economic development, and development implementation that was highly political and excluded major inputs from Black people. The DDF was formed in 1993 and aimed to be inclusive of all population groups in development planning. A set of principles were developed to guide development based on consensus decision making. Women's groups were included from the beginning, but little research was and is available on specific conditions and needs of different groups of women. Durban experienced since the 1980s a rise in the number of women in the labor force, a rise in female migrants to the DFR, and movement into "more insecure, poorly serviced newer settlements." Under apartheid, low income housing for Blacks was situated on peripheral areas or more distant locations that were away from employment in commerce and service industries in the central city. Women in urban slums survived with few sanitation amenities and limited access to an adequate water supply or electricity. Most development policy in the DFR ignored gender differences and gender power relations and focused on improving land, housing, and amenities for the poor in the central city. Although the general approach to improve infrastructure and facilities and to remove obstacles to development may have benefits for low income women, there are in fact mixed benefits for women.     

Economies of agglomeration and their relation with industrial productivity in Brazilian municipalities

This paper aimed at analysing the effects of economies of agglomeration (location and urbanization effects) on the industrial productivity of Brazilian municipalities between 2010 and 2017, identifying their possible spillover effects on the neighbourhood as a general and also regarding regional groups. In addition, the effects of location economies of the high/medium-high and low/medium-low technology on productivity were analysed. To achieve the aims proposed, an index of industrial development was built as a proxy for the productivity and estimates were calculated using the spatial dynamic panel. As a result, the effects of specialization economies were identified in the country as whole, mainly in the industry with less intense technology.     

既有工业厂房一体化改造案例

以上海某出口加工区废弃工业园全面升级改造为综合办公楼为例,分别对外部景观、交通、立面改造,内部空间、采光改造,结构加固、增层改造,暖通改造等措施作了论述,将其改造成为了绿色、环保、舒适的花园式办公园区,达到了预期的改造效果。     

Urban spatial structure,agglomeration economies,and economic growth in Barcelona: An intra‐metropolitan perspective*

This paper presents an intra‐metropolitan approach to analyse the impact of urban spatial structure on local economic growth. Focusing on the Barcelona metropolitan region (BMR) between 1986 and 2001, we estimate a municipal employment growth model in which dynamic agglomeration economies related to urban spatial structure are considered using distance to employment centres, to assess metropolitan effects, and distance‐weighted variables, to measure neighbourhood effects. The results obtained show the existence of neighbourhood specialization economies and metropolitan urbanization‐localization economies fostering local growth. All of this leads to the paper's main conclusion: urban spatial structure is important for economic growth in an intra‐metropolitan context.     

Emergy analysis of an industrial park: The case of Dalian, China

With the rapid development of eco-industrial park projects in China, evaluating their overall eco-efficiency is becoming an important need and a big challenge academically. Developing ecologically conscious industrial park management requires analysis of both industrial and ecological systems. Traditional evaluation methods based on neoclassical economics and embodied energy and exergy analyses have certain limitations due to their focus with environmental issues considered secondary to the maximization of economic and technical objectives. Such methods focus primarily on the environmental impact of emissions and their economic consequences. These approaches ignore the contribution of ecological products and services as well as the load placed on environmental systems and related problems of carrying capacity of economic and industrial development. This paper presents a new method, based upon emergy analysis and synthesis. Such a method links economic and ecological systems together, highlighting the internal relations among the different subsystems and components. The emergy-based method provides insight into the environmental performance and sustainability of an industrial park. This paper depicts the methodology of emergy analysis at the industrial park level and provides a series of emergy-based indices. A case study is investigated and discussed in order to show the emergy method's practical potential. Results from DEDZ (Dalian Economic Development Zone) case show us the potential of emergy synthesis method at the industrial park level for environmental policy making. Its advantages and limitations are also discussed with avenues for future research identified.     

On the conceptualization of agglomeration economies: The case of new firm formation in the Dutch ICT sector

In this research we look at the factors that determine new firm formation in the information and communications technology (ICT) sector among 580 municipalities in the Netherlands. In particular, we examine the role of agglomeration economies and other locational attributes in determining where new firms locate. Both proximity (contiguous) and heterogeneous (non-contiguous) structures at the local, regional and national level are significant when considering localised firm formation. This result supports previous evidence that high-technology enterprises tend to co-locate in areas where economic activity is spatially dense. The major point of our argument is that controversial research results in the literature concerning explanatory spatial circumstances that most favorably induce dynamic and innovative externalities (to a large extent) can be attributed to the lack of consistent spatial research designs that allow the modelling of multiple spatial scale and composition effects. More specifically, we argue that the incubation hypothesis needs adjusting to the appropriate spatial levels and units of analysis: that of the agglomerated region. Finally, we argue that the lack of consistent inclusion of life-cycle aspects of firms in the present mainstream literature on dynamic externalities also contributes to controversies in research outcomes. These findings are important for spatial economic policy indicating that investment in new technologies and economic structures should enhance the prospects for spillover effects at the local level.This article benefited considerably from comments on earlier versions made by participants at the 42nd European Regional Science Conference 2002 in Dortmund, participants of the workshop Modern Entrepreneurship, Regional Development and Policy at the Tinbergen Institute in Amsterdam (May 2003), attendants at a presentation at the Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftfo-rschung (DIW) in Berlin (August 2003), Leo van Wissen (Rijkuniversiteit Groningen) and two anonymous referees. The usual disclaimers apply.