Mass balance analysis and calculation of wind effects on heat fluxes and water temperature in a large lake

Modeling applications often ignore the water mass balance for hydrodynamic simulations in large lakes such as the Great Lakes. However, evaluation of the water budget can be of interest, especially when water surface calculations are important, and also as it relates to the heat budget. In this study Lake Ontario is modeled using the Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code for the heating seasons in 2008–2013, with calibration focused on 2008, for which more data are available. The model is used to test both water mass and heat budgets, and various interpolation schemes for meteorological data are tested to determine the degree of sensitivity of results to the interpolation method used. The water budget incorporates flow from major tributaries and precipitation/evaporation, and it is shown that these processes alone cannot provide a balance. Missing water quantities include direct runoff and flows from smaller, probably ungauged tributaries. In 2008 the calculated quantity is 1.61?×?10¹⁰?m³ during April to September, which is equivalent to a change in water surface level of 0.7?m and represents an average flow rate of 1018?m³/s, which is larger than the inflow of any tributary to the lake except the Niagara River. Latent and sensible heat flux calculations are highly affected by wind, and interpolation of wind data is found to impact model calculations of those quantities, though different interpolation schemes do not have a strong effect on surface water temperatures. In general, the natural neighbor interpolation method is preferred over inverse distance methods.     

Evaporation from Lake Superior: 1. Physical controls and processes

The surface energy balance of Lake Superior was measured using the eddy covariance method at a remote, offshore site at 0.5-h intervals from June 2008 through November 2010. Pronounced seasonal patterns in the surface energy balance were observed, with a five-month delay between maximum summer net radiation and maximum winter latent and sensible heat fluxes. Late season (winter) evaporation and sensible heat losses from the lake typically occurred in two- to three-day-long events, and were associated with significant release of stored heat from the lake. The majority of the evaporative heat loss (70-88%) and sensible heat loss (97-99%) occurred between October and March, with 464 mm (2008-2009) and 645 mm (2009-2010) of evaporative water loss occurring over the water year starting October 1. Evaporation was proportional to the horizontal wind speed, inversely proportional to the ambient vapor pressure, and was well described by the ratio of wind speed to vapor pressure. This ratio remained relatively constant between the two water years, so the differences in evaporative water loss between years were largely associated with differences in lake surface conditions (e.g. water temperature, ice cover, and ice duration). Since late-season water temperature decline is driven by evaporative and sensible heat loss, the potential for a negative feedback mechanism between evaporation and ice cover is discussed.     

Bowen Ratio Estimates over Lake Erie

Estimates of the ratio of sensible heat flux to latent heat flux (the Bowen ratio) are derived for Lake Erie based on the method introduced by Roll (1965), using hourly automated observations of lake and air temperatures for Buoy 45005 for the period 1992–1997 (May through November). Roll's method computes β as the product of the drag coefficient (which varies by atmospheric stability class) and the ratio of the difference between lake temperature (T_sea) and air temperature (T_air), to the sea-air vapor pressure difference. The latter can be estimated empirically as a function of Tsea and dew point temperature (T_d). In the diurnal cycle, β usually peaks in the afternoon hours and tends to increase as the warm season proceeds. Specifically, during unstable atmospheric conditions, β varies from approximately .15 to .30, and during times of high static stability, β tends to have near-zero to slightly negative values. Results allow for an improved understanding of turbulent energy fluxes from a large water body, which may affect other processes, such as ice cover, evaporation rates, and contaminant advection.     

Heat exchanges and temperatures within a salmon spawning stream in the Cairngorms,Scotland: seasonal and sub‐seasonal dynamics

Stream temperatures are often used to predict salmonid embryo development; but there are very few medium‐term studies of the heat exchanges determining water column and bed temperatures. Furthermore, no research exists on the energy balance for sub‐arctic Scottish rivers. This paper reports results of a hydrometeorological study of a Cairngorm stream (Girnock burn, northeast Scotland) over the salmon spawning–hatch season (late October 2001 to mid‐April 2002) that aims: (1) to characterize seasonal and sub‐seasonal stream energy budget and thermal dynamics; and (2) to explain these variations with respect to meteorological and hydrological factors. In terms of average energy flux contributions, sensible heat (38.7%), the bed heat flux (37.0%) and friction at the stream bed and banks (24.3%) are heat sources, while latent heat (73.1%) and net radiation (26.9%) are heat sinks. All energy losses and 38.7% of heat gains occur at the air–water interface; and 61.3% of energy gains (including friction) take place at the water–channel bed interface. Typically, temperatures increase (+1.97°C) and show dampening of thermal response from the water column to depth in the stream bed. The most salient findings include: (1) the stream bed (atmosphere) is the dominant energy source (sink) for heating (cooling) channel water, which may be attributed to inferred heat advection by groundwater up‐welling into the bed of this upland stream; (2) sensible heat is the primary atmospheric energy source due to limited net radiation; (3) friction at the stream bed and banks is an important heat source. Energy budget terms and temperatures exhibit (sub‐)seasonal changes in response to meteorological and hydrological conditions; a schematic diagram is presented to summarize these results. This paper clearly illustrates the need for further medium‐ to long‐term empirical stream energy balance research to characterize heat flux dynamics and, thus, understand and predict water temperature variations over time‐scales of relevance to biological studies. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Simplified SEBAL method for estimating vast areal evapotranspiration with MODIS data

The SEBAL (surface energy balance algorithm for land) model provides an efficient tool for estimating the spatial distribution of evapotranspiration,and performs a simple adjustment procedure to calculate sensible heat flux using the wind speed data set from only one weather station.This paper proposes a simplified method to modify the traditional SEBAL model for calculating the 24-hour evapotranspiration () in the Haihe Basin with data from 34 weather stations.We interpolated the wind speeds using the inve...     

厄瓜多尔区域水文平衡研究

采用厄瓜多尔147个气象站多年实测降水、温度、风速、湿度、日照等气象数据,分析研究了西部太平洋水系区、中部安第斯山区和东部亚马逊平原区降水、潜在蒸散发、土壤水分储存变化、实际蒸发量及土壤水的盈余或赤字量等水文平衡过程。研究方法基于Thornthwaite水平衡模型,需要输入降水量、潜在蒸散发量和土壤最大含水量等重要参数。潜在蒸散发量研究采用FAO-56 Penman-Monteith法和改进的Thornthwaite法。研究成果清晰展示了降水、蒸发、水量盈余或赤字的时空分布,对于研究该地区土壤水分的变化,优化农作物种植结构及播种、灌溉时机,水资源优化配置和水利工程规划可提供重要参考。     

The Impact of Surface Heat Flux and Wind on Thermal Stratification in Portage Lake,Michigan

Portage Lake is situated near the center of the Keweenaw Peninsula and is connected to Lake Superior via lengthy (> 7 km) navigation channels. Using moored thermistor records and meteorological data, we examine how changes in lake stratification are related to surface winds and heat flux. Frequent episodes of full water column mixing are observed throughout the summer. Convective mixing through surface cooling appears to be an important agent responsible for these events, as all occur during cold air outbreaks and when the net heat flux is directed out of the lake (negative). However, wind-induced mixing is also implicated in contributing to some vertical mixing events, as evidenced by two events initiated during a period of strong winds and declining, but not yet negative, heat fluxes. Our analysis indicates that each time the water column restratifies, it tends to become more susceptible to convectively-driven overturn during cold air outbreaks. This tendency is quantified by the estimated time over which surface cooling due to a specified set of conditions, characteristic of a cold air outbreak, would reduce the temperature contrast between the upper and lower layers by half. This time declines by more than an order of magnitude for successive restratification events observed in the summer of 1999. Our analysis also reveals successive formation and dissolution of a diurnal surface mixed layer in an otherwise homogeneous water column during a 10-day period of August 1999. This is attributed to the combination of relatively light winds and negative daily net heat fluxes.     

响应实时气象条件变化的河渠水温快速计算

为了快速准确地预测河渠水温的动态变化,通过概化河渠水面热交换的动态过程,分项计算表面各热通量过程,提出了能响应气象条件实时变化的动态水温快速计算方法。该方法关注动态气象过程及其造成的河渠水温变化,在计算中通过引入平衡迟滞时间概念,考虑了断面平均水温对气象变化的响应迟滞。海南某电厂取水明渠的实证研究表明:该方法能有效捕捉水温对气象条件的实时响应,可准确地模拟河渠沿程水温的动态过程;平衡迟滞时间的引入使模拟误差减小了39%,模型计算的河渠水温对风速、气温和云量更敏感。在全球气候变化和极端天气事件频发的背景下,本研究可为河流水温状况评估及明渠温变估算提供一种快捷有效的方法。     

基于气象因子敏感性的参照蒸散发简化计算模型

Penman-Monteith（P-M）参照蒸散发计算模型参数众多,对于实测资料匮乏地区,难以适用。基于四川若尔盖湿地1980~2007年的月值气象数据,利用单因子分析法,并结合DAAG共线性诊断、残差标准差、F检验和t检验,对影响该地区参照蒸散发的气象因子的敏感性进行分析可知,按敏感性大小排序依次为最高气温、日照时数、最低气温、最大相对湿度、最小相对湿度及风速。运用多元线性逐步回归法,建立了由各气象因子构成的参照蒸散发的优化计算模型。利用P-M计算结果作为参照值,对所构建模型进行了验证。结果表明,该优化计算模型有效可行,可替代P-M模型计算若尔盖湿地蒸散发量。      

Heat island mitigation using water retentive pavement sprinkled with reclaimed wastewater.

In Japan, reclaimed wastewater has been recycled widely for non-potable urban applications and it is to be used for sprinkling roads to mitigate heat island in urban areas. To assess the heat island mitigation effects of the sprinkling reclaimed wastewater on water retentive pavement, we carried out a survey at Shiodome-District, Tokyo. The temperatures of air and roads, humidity, and WBGT (Wet-bulb globe temperature) were measured and heat flux was estimated to compare the condition of the areas with/without sprinkling. The following results were obtained. 1) Sprinkling reclaimed wastewater decreased the road surface temperature by 8 degrees during the daytime and by 3 degrees at night: temperatures equal to those on planting zones. Nevertheless sprinkling was done only in the daytime, the temperature decrease effect was not only obtained during the daytime: it continued through the night, due to the water retentive pavement. 2) Sprinkling reclaimed wastewater reduced the amount of sensible heat flux and increased that of latent heat flux. These results suggest that sprinkling reclaimed wastewater on water retentive pavement can effectively mitigate the heat island phenomenon.     

基于最小二乘支持向量机的ET0模拟计算

参考作物蒸散量 （ET0） 有多种计算方法。本文将ET0看作是气象因素的复杂非线性回归,以日最高温度、最低温度、平均风速、太阳辐射以及相对湿度5个气象因子不同方式的组合作为输入数据,以FAO56 Penman-Mon?teith公式计算的结果作为预测校准值,建立了最小二乘支持向量机模型。选取河套地区临河气象站2005年逐日气象数据进行训练与验证,并将模拟结果同其他常用ET0计算公式的计算结果进行对比研究。结果表明最小二乘支持向量机能够很好的反映ET0同气象因素之间的非线性关系,模拟计算精度高,但随着气象因素个数的减少模拟精度有所下降。当基于温度和辐射条件计算时,最小二乘支持向量机模拟计算结果较Priestley-Talor公式计算精度更高,当基于温度条件计算时,温度较低时最小二乘支持向量机的模拟精度高于Hargreaves公式。     

内蒙古东部牧区缺测数据条件下适宜ET_0计算方法优选

内蒙古东部牧区多地处偏远边疆,气象站点有限,应用FA056 Penman-Monteith计算ET0相对困难。为了在缺测气象数据条件下准确计算ET0,本文依据该区内典型气象站点资料,以FAO56 Penman-Monteith为标准方法,以FAO17 Penman、Priestley-Taylor、Irmark-Allen拟合法、Hargreaves-Samani法为对照方法分别对ET0进行计算,并对4种方法适用性进行评价。结果表明:Priestley-Taylor与Hargreaves-Samani法计算值较FAO56 PM法计算结果偏大,不适于该地区ET0计算。FAO17 Penman法和Irmark-Allen拟合法与FAO56 PM法计算结果平均相对误差小于15%,计算精度较高,但Irmark-Allen拟合法仅需气温和日照时间气象资料,因此,Irmark-Allen拟合法适宜缺测气象条件下内蒙古东部牧区ET0计算。     

青铜峡灌区参考作物蒸发蒸腾量与气象因子的灰色关联度分析

在收集了青铜峡引黄灌区5个气象站最近5年气象资料的基础上，应用1998年FAO修正彭曼-蒙特斯公式，计算出各站逐年的参考作物蒸发蒸腾量ET0；在阐述灰关联分析理论与计算方法的基础上，利用灰关联分析理论计算出各站各气象因子与ET0的灰色关联度并进行排序。分析结果表明：各气象因子对参考作物蒸发蒸腾量的影响都比较大，尤其是日照时数、平均最高气温和年平均风速对各站的影响相对较大，而最低气温、相对湿度和降雨对各站的参考作物蒸发蒸腾量的影响相对比较小。     

Responses of thermal structure and vertical dynamic structure of South China Sea to Typhoon Chanchu

The response of the South China Sea (SCS) to Typhoon Chanchu (2006) was examined using the MM5 and POM model. In the POM model, sea surface boundary conditions were forced by the simulation wind field from MM5, the velocity forcing was introduced in the eastern boundary and the computational schemes of heat fluxes at the surface were introduced. Comparison with the observation data shows that the simulated results are reliable. In the response process of the SCS to Typhoon Chanchu, the influence of the heat fluxes on thermal structure of the SCS was regionally different. Strong wind forcing would lead to upwelling phenomenon in the lateral boundary of deep water basin. Furthermore, the Ekman pumping theory was used to discuss subsurface upwelling and downwelling phenomenon in typhoon forced stage.     

灌区不同空间尺度显热通量测定方法的对比分析

摘要：本文利用安装在山东省位山灌区典型农田内的大孔径激光闪烁仪 （LAS） 和涡度相关系统 （EC） ,测定了不同空度尺度上的显热通量,对比分析了两个系统测定结果在不同作物条件下的相关关系,讨论了造成二者偏差的可能原因。结果显示,在研究区域的农田下垫面条件下LAS和EC系统测定的显热通量之间存在较好的一致性;LAS的测量结果略大于EC测量值,这可能是由下垫面不均匀性、二者源区不一致以及EC测量值偏小造成的。研究证明,LAS是测定区域平均显热通量较为可靠的方法。     

利用神经网络-缺省因子法及熵权法分析气象因素对水面蒸发的影响

根据新疆车尔臣流域且末县气象站2007年非结冰期(4-9月)日水面蒸发量及相关常规气象观测资料,利用神经网络-缺省因子法及熵权法分析了各气象要素对水面蒸发的影响程度。结果表明:水面蒸发对温度与风速最为敏感。希望从气象因素角度出发,为区域水资源优化调度提供参考。     

Estimation of Heat and Hydrologic Budget of Upper Klamath Lake Oregon,USA Using Updated DLM-WQ Model

Estimation of lake hydrologic budgets is essential for sustainable water management due to increasing water demand and uncertainties related to climate change. The updated turbulent diffusion transfer algorithms were developed and incorporated in the DLM-WQ model developed at UC Davis to estimate the Upper Klamath Lake’s dynamics, and heat and hydrologic budget. The exchange coefficients for latent heat (C_EN), sensible heat (C_HN), and wind drag (C_D) of the turbulent diffusion model were calibrated using coefficient of correlation as the objective function. The agreement between estimated and measured lake water elevation and temperature are found to be excellent with correlation coefficients 0.99 and 0.95, respectively. The heat and hydrologic budgets are more sensitive to evaporative heat loss (35 %) than sensible heat exchanges (11 %). The stream inflow and lake outflow dominate the hydrologic budget with approximately 47 % due to stream inflow and approximately 44 % due to lake outflow. Precipitation directly on the lake and evaporation from the lake are only 3 % and 6 %, respectively. The lake mixes to the bottom sporadically during spring and summer. Estimated deep mixing for the period 1994–1996 shows the lake’s increasing stability without a deep mixing event for approximately 4 months during summer in 1996. Prolonged stratification in the hypereutrophic lake is expected to lead to hypoxia near the sediment surface resulting in exacerbation of existing ecological problems. The DLM-WQ model can be applied to a broad range of lakes/reservoirs with selection of appropriate C_EN and C_HN value for lake/reservoir dynamics and water resources planning evaluation.     

ASSIMILATION OF ALTIMETER WIND DATA IN MESOSCALE NUMERICAL MODEL (MM5)

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二维半理论的船舶运动及波浪增阻计算适用性研究

波浪增阻是计算船舶能效指标中气象因子w_f的关键。该文基于二维半理论(又称高速细长体理论)实现了船舶运动响应预报并采用辐射能量法开发了波阻增加计算程序。通过对不同航速下Wigley III和S175船的水动力、运动和波浪增阻的细致计算与分析,并与切片理论和三维航速修正法求解的结果及试验值进行了比较,验证该方法的可靠性和适用性。研究表明二维半理论适用于船舶运动与波浪增阻的计算,相较于工程上常用的切片理论和航速修正方法,计算结果准确性适用性更高,为船舶波阻增加预报提供了快速有效的手段。