Evaluation of fatigue damage in materials using indentation testing and infrared thermography

Damage identification due to fatigue has been studied on 304-Stainless Steel and Al-Cu-Mg alloys 2014-T651 and 7175-T7351, using two different experimental methods: a) cyclic indentation, and b) infrared thermography. Indentation response during load controlled cyclic loading is used to characterize fatigue response of materials. The load vs. depth of penetration data obtained continuously during fatigue testing is used to obtain information on cyclic stress-strain behavior and onset of failure. Infrared thermography is used to study the heat generation during fatigue loading on specimens. The variables that affect the process are: frequency of loading, magnitude of strain (elastic-plastic), thermal properties. The temperature curve can be considered to be having three regions, initial region of rapid increase in temperature, followed by stable temperature rise and final rapid heat generation prior to failure. The slopes in the initial region and stable region are independent of prior damage history in materials in case of specimens subjected to pure elastic load reversals. In case of elastic-plastic loadings, the rate at which the temperature rises in initial region changes as a function of fatigue damage and can thus be used to estimate prior damage in materials.     

Calibration of the SMCS Criterion for Ductile Fracture in Steels: Specimen Size Dependence and Parameter Assessment

The stress modified critical strain (SMCS) criterion provides a local index for the initiation of ductile fracture in metals as a function of plastic strain and stress triaxiality. Previous research has confirmed the SMCS criterion to be an accurate index for fracture initiation in mild steels and demonstrated its application to civil/structural engineering. To facilitate practical implementation of the SMCS criterion, two key aspects of its calibration for steel materials are examined. The first pertains to the sensitivity of the measured SMCS material toughness parameter to the size of the test coupon. New results from 23 tests of cylindrically notched tension (CNT) specimens of various sizes and notch geometries indicate that the toughness parameter is relatively insensitive to calibration specimen size. This finding validates the use of miniature bar specimens to calibrate the SMCS model for thin plate steels and in-service structures, where extraction of larger coupons is impossible. The second aspect involves the development of closed-form expressions to determine directly the SMCS toughness parameter from CNT tests, thus avoiding the need for interpretation of the test data through finite-element simulations. Based on the results of 54 numerical simulations, encompassing a range of material constitutive properties, specimen geometries, and applied deformations, a semiempirical relationship (based in part on Bridgman’s solution for necked tension rods) is proposed to determine the toughness parameter directly from the CNT bar tests.     

Studies of Evaluation of Hydrogen Embrittlement Property of High-Strength Steels with Consideration of the Effect of Atmospheric Corrosion

Hydrogen embrittlement of high-strength steels was investigated by using slow strain rate test (SSRT) of circumferentially notched round bar specimens after hydrogen precharging. On top of that, cyclic corrosion tests (CCT) and outdoor exposure tests were conducted prior to SSRT to take into account the effect of hydrogen uptake under atmospheric corrosion for the evaluation of the susceptibility of high-strength steels. Our studies of hydrogen embrittle properties of high-strength steels with 1100 to 1500 MPa of tensile strength and a prototype ultrahigh-strength steel with 1760 MPa containing hydrogen traps using those methods are reviewed in this article. A power law relationship between notch tensile strength of hydrogen-precharged specimens and diffusible hydrogen content has been found. It has also been found that the local stress and the local hydrogen concentration are controlling factors of fracture. The results obtained by using SSRT after CCT and outdoor exposure test were in good agreement with the hydrogen embrittlement fracture property obtained by means of long-term exposure tests of bolts made of the high-strength steels.     

Determination of crash‐relevant material parameters by dynamic tensile tests

The mechanical properties of eight different steels, representing the wide range of steels for automotive application, are determined by accomplishing high speed tensile tests using flat sheet specimens. The steels chosen for investigations are deep drawing grade DC04, high strength steel ZStE340, three dual phase steels with strengths of 600, 800 and 1000 MPa, a TRIP steel and two austenitic stainless steels 1.4301 and 1.4318. Tests are carried out at five different strain rates within the range of 5‐10^?3 and 200 s^?1, all at room temperature. The results show different strain rate sensitivities according to the different grades of steel. The TRIP steel and both stainless steels show a great potential for energy consumption, when tested at high strain rates.     

镁合金薄板成型性的双向原位拉伸评价方法

采用小型双轴拉伸试验机,对各向异性材料镁合金薄板分别进行不同加载比例下的双向拉伸实验,还通过在试验机上配备高倍率显微镜,获得裂纹尖端在双向拉伸时扩展的原位图像。在双向拉伸实验中采用十字形拉伸试样。借助于ANSYS有限元模拟软件,优化了试样的形状和尺寸。     

铁素体和珠光体含量影响变形过程的原位研究

在扫描电镜下原位观察了两种钢的拉伸变形过程,两种钢分别为以铁素体为主、含少量珠光体的纯净高强钢和以珠光体为主、含少量先共析铁素体的车轮钢.纯净钢拉伸时,不论试样厚度满足平面应变与否,均以铁素体的滑移变形为主,并最终导致韧性开裂,裂纹连续扩展,少量的珠光体对整个变形断裂过程几乎没有影响;断口呈现韧窝状.对于车轮钢,当试样厚度很薄不满足平面应变条件时,尽管先共析铁素体很少,拉伸时,仍以先共析铁素体的变形为先导过程,并在先共析铁素体与珠光体的界面处优先开裂,成为不连续微裂纹,断口呈现韧窝和准解理两种混合特征;当试样厚度满足平面应变条件时,则以珠光体中渗碳体片层的脆性开裂为主,断口呈现准解理特征.      

A comparison of fracture behavior of low alloy steel with different sizes of carbide particles

The fracture behaviors of low alloy steels with similar grain sizes but different sizes of carbide particles were investigated using precracked and notched specimens. The results indicate that in precracked specimens (COD), steel with coarser carbide particles has a lower toughness than steel with finer carbide particles over a temperature range from –196 °C to – 90 °C. However, in notched specimens (four-point bending (4PB) and Charpy V), these two steels shows similar toughness at low temperature where specimens are fractured by cleavage without fibrous cracking. In the transition temperature range, the steel with coarser carbide particles conversely shows a little higher toughness due to the longer extension length of the fibrous crack. This phenomenon indicates that in precracked specimens, the second-phase particles play a leading role in cleavage fracture, while in notched specimens, the grain size dominates the fracture behavior.     

Tracking of cracks in sheet steel specimens under cyclic loading

In this report a non-contact gauging system based on eddy current technology is presented which permits unproblematic detection and tracking of cracks initiated by cyclic loading in sheet steel specimens. In comparison with other measuring methods the automatic pilot unit developed displays distinct advantages thanks to its highly accurate measuring results. This measuring unit is suitable for the examination of thin sheet steels (< 2 mm) and has been successfully used for studying ductile materials. Some results of such investigations are therefore illustrated.     

A general approach for predicting the drawing fracture load and limit drawing ratio of an axisymmetric drawing process

Based on Hill’s theory of plasticity and the Swift diffuse instability criterion, new theoretical models are proposed for predicting the drawing fracture load and limit drawing ratio (LDR) of an axisymmetric cup drawing. These models take into account the influence of triaxial stress state, anisotropy, strain hardening, bending, and tool geometry. By introducing both conventional and modified Hollomon’s equations, the influences of these variables on the constitutive relation of sheet steels are also analyzed. It is shown that the theoretical predictions of the drawing fracture load are in good agreement with experimental results for a wide range of sheet steels currently used in the automotive industry. Specific tool geometries are found to decrease the drawing fracture load and the LDR, because of increased triaxial stress states and bending effects at the critical section of the workpiece. The optimum punch-profile radius is found to be between 5.0 and 7.0 times the thickness of the sheet. Additionally, the role of both the anisotropy and strain-hardening properties of the sheet steels in determining the drawing fracture load and the LDR are, subsequently, discussed.     

Monotonic and cyclic damage in metallic sheets

This paper aims to provide an account of some interesting features of damage in metallic sheets under monotonic and cyclic loading using the information and understanding developed through a series of experimental investigations conducted on interstitial free steels. The experiments primarily consisted of damage evaluation in un-notched and notched sheets vis-à-vis that in thick specimens under monotonic loading, and that on sheets by interrupted or continuous cyclic loading. Some salient observations indicate that: (i) void nucleation occurs in two different stages, originating from non-metallic inclusions and precipitates. The critical strain for void nucleation at precipitates (?_c) is lower for sheet metals than that in thick specimens. (ii) ?_c is a function of notch length in sheets, and the function assists to estimate the strength of particle/matrix interface, (iii) under cyclic loading, steel sheets exhibit non propagating microcracks below the endurance limit. Above the endurance limit slip bands promote formation of larger fatigue cracks primarily at ferrite grain boundaries. A series of grain boundary cracks link up to form meso-cracks, one of which grows to cause final failure and (iv) the growth of the macro-crack initially occurs in opening mode followed by its propagation in mixed mode through striations, intergranular cracking and through thickness necking prior to failure.     

高锰钢高速冲击时剪切区TRIP行为的准原位分析

利用背散射电子衍射技术对高速冲击前后高锰钢样品强制剪切区域的晶粒进行准原位观察,分析了剪切区域不同位置晶粒的相变情况,并借助有限元模拟及受力计算对不同晶粒相变程度差异的原因做了进一步分析.结果表明,在高速变形下,应力应变水平、奥氏体取向及晶粒间的相互作用共同影响TRIP行为:应力应变水平越高,相变程度越大;由于帽型样中剪切应力的存在,相比于近〈111〉取向奥氏体,近〈100〉和近〈110〉取向奥氏体相变程度更大,近〈110〉取向相变程度最大.具有有利取向的奥氏体,晶粒尺寸越大,其相变行为受周围晶粒影响越小,越容易充分相变;具有有利取向的长条状奥氏体晶粒,若其两侧晶粒难相变,则该晶粒相变将受到束缚;带有尖角的晶粒,变形时应力集中难以释放,易发生相变;当晶粒的孪生分力大于滑移,但其最大和次大的孪生分力相差不大,可能导致在这两个方向孪生互相竞争,反而不易相变.高速变形时体心马氏体多在晶界应力集中处产生,很少在晶粒内部大量产生,形态多为细片状,变体选择强.      

Cyclic work hardening and formation of dislocation substructures during low-cycle fatigue of tempered dual-phase steels

A C-Mn-Si dual-phase steel, containing 33.8% lath martensite of 0.45% C content (called steel 1), was tempered at 200, 460 and 650°C and designated steels J, K and L, respectively. Sheet specimens of 3 mm thickness and 10 mm gauge length pertaining to steels I, J, K and L were subjected to tensile and low cycle fatigue testing at room temperature. The steels I, K and L show cyclic softening while the steel J exhibits a small cyclic hardening. The cyclic stress response varies significantly at higher and lower applied strain amplitudes for each of the steels which has been discussed in terms of competing processes of hardening and softening during strain cycling. The value of the cyclic strain hardening exponent decreases continuously in the order steels I>J>K>L. Varied dislocation substructures form at higher and lower strain amplitudes during cyclic deformation.     

Investigations Using Smooth and Notched Specimens into Validity of Caustic Cracking Susceptibility Diagram

Susceptibility to caustic cracking at different temperatures and caustic concentrations, as predicated by the caustic cracking susceptibility diagram, has been examined by stress corrosion cracking tests using smooth specimens (by slow strain rate testing) and notched specimens (by cylindrical notch tensile testing). Intergranular fracture, as established by scanning electron microscopy, was taken as the confirmatory evidence of caustic cracking. The results generated using notched specimens largely have been consistent with the prediction of the susceptibility diagram.     

Delayed Fracture Behavior of CrMo-Type High Strength Steel Containing Titanium

Generally ,thequenchedandtemperedlowalloysteelswithtensilestrengthabove 12 0 0MPaaresus ceptibletohydrogen induceddelayedfracture(HIDF) [1,2 ] .Extensivestudiesonthedelayedfracturebehaviorofhighstrengthsteelshavebeenperformedtheseyears,butthesatisfactorys…     

Investigating and Understanding the Cyclic Fatigue,Deformation, and Fracture Behavior of a Novel High Strength Alloy Steel: Influence of Orientation

In this paper, the results of a recent study aimed at understanding the influence of orientation on high cycle fatigue properties and final fracture behavior of alloy steel Pyrowear 53 is presented and discussed. This alloy steel has noticeably improved strength, ductility, and toughness properties compared to other competing high strength alloy steels having a near similar chemical composition and processing history. Test specimens of this alloy steel were precision machined and conformed to the specifications detailed in the ASTM standards for tension testing and stress‐controlled cyclic fatigue tests. Test specimens were prepared from both the longitudinal and transverse orientations of the as‐provided alloy steel bar stock. The machined test specimens were deformed in cyclic fatigue over a range of maximum stress and under conditions of fully reversed loading, i.e., at a load ratio of ?1, and the number of cycles‐to‐failure recorded. The specific influence of orientation on cyclic fatigue life of this alloy steel is presented. The fatigue fracture surfaces were examined in a scanning electron microscope to establish the macroscopic fracture mode and to characterize the intrinsic features on the fatigue fracture surfaces. The conjoint influence of microstructure, orientation, nature of loading, and maximum stress on cyclic fatigue life is discussed.     

Boundary Element Simulation of Size Effect for Quasi-Brittle Materials by Using One-Size Specimen

A multizone nonlinear boundary element method is used to simulate the size effect of quasi-brittle materials that are modeled as randomly dispersed particulate composites with randomly distributed microcracks located between the particles and matrix. Usually a series of geometrically similar specimens are used to describe the size effect of materials. In this paper, a one-size specimen method for determining the fracture energy Gf and effective process zone length cf is proposed and verified by numerical simulation. The specimen used for boundary element simulation is confined to only one shape and one size but with different initial crack lengths. A three-point-bend beam and a compact tension specimen are used to expand the range of brittleness number and therefore increase the degree of confidence of the results. Notchless specimens of the same size are also calculated and used to supplement the data of one-size notched specimens. The shape, size, and location of the fracture process zone caused by development of microcracking are observed. The results of Gf and cf obtained from the one-size specimen method are compared with a commonly used method and a good agreement is shown.     

The effect of the carbide phases on the crack grow of 0.5 pct Mo-B steels under impact,cyclic, and monotonically increasing loading

A study of the influence of carbide phases on the cracking resistance of as-quenched and of quenched and tempered 0.5 pct Mo-B steels was made using notched or notched and precracked specimens that were subjected to impact, cyclic, and monotonically increasing loading. The carbide influence on fracture, while limited in extent, was found to increase as load, loading rate, volume fraction, and particle size increase. The results for the asquenched condition showed that the susceptibility of these steels to crack initiation under impact loading at temperatures below - 100°F is greater when even a small amount of titanium carbide (less than 0.2 vol pet of 1 to 5 μm particles) is present than when none is present. At room temperature, this same carbide concentration has no influence on impact properties, fatigue-crack initiation (in the presence of a notch), fatigue-crack growth rate, or the ductile fracture resistance under monotonically increasing loading at slow strain rate. In the case of the quenched and tempered materials, the alloy containing a large amount of M₂₃C₆ (2 vol pct of 1 to 10 μm particles) exhibited behavior similar to that observed in the as-quenched materials containing titanium carbide. That is, the presence of M₂₃C₆ was associated with increased susceptibility to crack initiation for impact loading at low temperature. In addition, at room temperature this alloy had a reduced impact energy for crack propagation. For monotonically increasing loading at slow strain rate, this same carbide distribution had no influence on the net section stresses required to initiate stable or unstable crack growth. These stresses fall closely in line with, respectively, the yield stress and tensile strength of the material. The alloy containing M₂₃C₆ required less crack opening for a given crack extension—an effect most pronounced after maximum load. Finally, some attention is directed to the use of Charpy test data to assess fracture resistance for modes of loading other than impact.     

Modeling and measurement of the notched strength of gamma titanium aluminides under monotonic loading

A substantial concern with gamma titanium aluminides is their limited ductility and, in particular, the consequences of limited ductility at stress concentrators. In this study, the notched strength of a cast Ti-47.9Al-2.0Cr-2.0Nb alloy is considered under monotonic tensile loading at room temperature. Efforts are further focused on the alloy’s behavior under conditions of plane stress and on cases where notch radii are large relative to grain size. Finite element predictions for notched tensile specimens and the Neuber design criterion are used to quantify relationships between tensile ductility, the ability to reduce local stress concentrations through plastic flow, and ultimate failure loads in notched components. Results from the testing of two modeled configurations are presented, and the numerical models are used to interpret the test results. Two major issues are addressed in this work. The first is how much plastic deformation is needed to blunt stress concentrations in gamma TiAl components under monotonic loading. For values of elastic stress concentrations commonly encountered in components, it is demonstrated that a total strain at failure as low as 1 pct (corresponding to a plastic strain at failure of 0.8 pct) is sufficient to essentially achieve the maximum reduction in stress concentration due to plastic flow. Second, the relationship between continuum-theory predictions of notched component failure (made using uniaxial tensile test strains at failure) and failure loads observed in notched specimens is explored. It is shown that, on average, continuum-theory predictions of notched strength based on unnotched specimen strains at failure act as conservative lower bounds on actual results. It is suspected that the notch strengthening observed in gamma TiAl is due to smaller volumes of highly strained material (a size effect) in the notched specimens.     

Shape memory effect and related transformation behavior in FeNiC alloys

Shape memory effect in two representative FeNiC alloys, 31% Ni-0.4% C and 27% Ni-0.8% C, with low Ms temperatures has been studied in detail. The shape memory test was conducted not only on as-austenitized specimens but also on ausformed specimens. The effect of an external load during reverse transformation was also examined. The reverse martensitic transformation behavior related with the shape memory effect was observed in situ, using a high temperature optical microscope. The results are (1) about 50% shape recovery is observed for up to 5% initial tensile strain, while 75–95% shape recovery is obtained for 1–2% initial bending strain. (2) An ausformed specimen shows a better shape memory effect probably owing to the increased austenite strength. (3) The austenite-martensite interface moves backward on heating not only for a plate-type martensite but also for a curved or irregular shaped martensite in a specimen strengthened by ausforming. (4) The shape recovery decreases with increasing an applied load, but even in this case the reversible interface movement occurs.     

Cyclic creep and cyclic deformation of high-strength spring steels and the evaluation of the sag effect: Part I. Cyclic plastic deformation behavior

The cyclic creep and cyclic plastic deformation behavior of two commercial suspension spring steels of high hardness levels, namely, SAE 9259 and SAE 5160, were studied under different testing conditions of cyclic peak stress and cyclic stress ratio. The experimental results indicate that both the cyclic stress ratio and cyclic peak stress have strong, but complicated, effects on the cyclic creep and cyclic plastic deformation behavior of these materials. It has also been found that the addition of silicon can increase the resistance of these steels to cyclic creep and cyclic plastic deformation, although the extent of this increase is also related to other cyclic deformation conditions. A transition in the relationship between the total plastic strain range and the cyclic stress ratio (R) has been detected at approximately R=0.5. The mechanism of such a transition is explained by the operation of cross-slip during the unloading process of cycling. Moreover, a cyclic softening behavior of these spring steels in the quench-tempered condition was also detected and is attributed to the activation and reorganization of obstacle dislocations introduced into the steels during the process of martensitic transformation. More importantly, this study has indicated that parameters such as the cyclic creep strain, the cyclic creep rate in the secondary creep stage, and the total cyclic plastic strain range can better reflect, and should be used to depict and characterize, the sag behavior of spring steels as well as other materials. Finally, the effect of silicon on sag behavior, in comparison with the results from the Bauschinger-effect test, has also been discussed through the influence of Si on carbide formation and distribution.