A model-updating procedure to stimulate piezoelectric transducers accurately

The use of numerical calculations based on finite element methods (FEM) has yielded significant improvements in the simulation and design of piezoelectric transducers utilized in acoustic imaging. However, the ultimate precision of such models is directly controlled by the accuracy of material characterization. The present work is dedicated to the development of a model-updating technique adapted to the problem of piezoelectric transducer. The updating process is applied using the experimental admittance of a given structure for which a finite element analysis is performed. The mathematical developments are reported and then applied to update the entries of a FEM of a two-layer structure (a PbZrTi-PZT-ridge glued on a backing) for which measurements were available. The efficiency of the proposed approach is demonstrated, yielding the definition of a new set of constants well adapted to predict the structure response accurately. Improvement of the proposed approach, consisting of the updating of material coefficients not only on the admittance but also on the impedance data, is finally discussed     

Technique for nonuniform poling of piezoelectric element and fabrication of Gaussian transducers

A new technique has been developed to polarize piezoelectric ceramic elements with a nonuniform electric field. Used as an ultrasonic transducer, the piezoelectric element will produce a corresponding nonuniform sound field. Ultrasonic transducers for generating specific field profiles can therefore be made by having a predetermined spatial pattern of polarization strength poled into the piezoelectric element. One of the desirable beam profiles is a Gaussian; it has the advantages of being free from near-field fluctuations and far-field sidelobes, and it is much easier to model than the usual piston transducers. This method was used to fabricate Gaussian beam transducers, and their measured field profiles compared well with the Gaussian beam model. Such transducers containing the built-in Gaussian amplitude profile can be electroded and mounted in the same manner as conventional piston transducers.     

Composite piezoelectric transducers

Considerations of the influence of crystal symmetry, macrosymmetry, and interphase connectivity have been used to explore possible macrostructures of interest as piezoelectric composites. Based on these design considerations, ceramic-plastic composites have been fabricated with 3-3 phase connectivity by the replication of natural template structures such as coral. Composites prepared in this way have piezo-electric g and g_h coefficients more than an order of magnitude higher than the coefficients of the homogeneously poled ferroelectric ceramic. A simplified fabrication technique has been developed by mixing volatilizable plastic spheres and PZT powder. When sintered and backfilled with epoxy, and poled, these composites give excellent piezoelectric voltage coefficients. Large voltage coefficients were also obtained from 3-1 piezoelectric composites made by embedding PZT fiber arrays in epoxy cement. A continuous poling method has been developed for these fibers which makes it possible to assemble complex composites from pre-poled PZT fibers in epoxy matrices. Multilayer composites with 2-2 connectivity have been produced for filters and other high-frequency applications. Processing methods for producing 3-1 and 2-2 connected composites are described.     

Calculation of piezoelectric transducers

Translated from Izmeritel'naya Tekhnika, No. 11, pp. 54–56, November, 1991.     

Capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers: fabrication technology

Capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (cMUT) technology is a prime candidate for next generation imaging systems. Medical and underwater imaging and the nondestructive evaluation (NDE) societies have expressed growing interest in cMUTs over the years. Capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer technology is expected to make a strong impact on imaging technologies, especially volumetric imaging, and to appear in commercial products in the near future. This paper focuses on fabrication technologies for cMUTs and reviews and compares variations in the production processes. We have developed two main approaches to the fabrication of cMUTs: the sacrificial release process and the recently introduced wafer-bonding method. This paper gives a thorough review of the sacrificial release processes, and it describes the new wafer-bonding method in detail. Process variations are compared qualitatively and quantitatively whenever possible. Through these comparisons, it was concluded that wafer-bonded cMUT technology was superior in terms of process control, yield, and uniformity. Because the number of steps and consequent process time were reduced (from six-mask process to four-mask process), turn-around time was improved significantly.     

High frequency piezoelectric MEMS ultrasound transducers

High-frequency ultrasound array transducers using piezoelectric thin films on larger structures are being developed for high-resolution imaging systems. The increase in resolution is achieved by a simultaneous increase in operating frequency (30 MHz to about 1 GHz) and close coupling of the electronic circuitry. Two different processing methods were explored to fabricate array transducers. In one implementation, a xylophone bar transducer was prototyped, using thin film PbZr(0.52)Ti(0.48)O(3) (PZT) as the active piezoelectric layer. In the other, the piezoelectric transducer was prepared by mist deposition of PZT films over electroplated Ni posts. Because the PZT films are excited through the film thickness, the drive voltages of these transducers are low, and close coupling of the electronic circuitry is possible. A complementary metal-oxidesemiconductor (CMOS) transceiver chip for a 16-element array was fabricated in 0.35-microm process technology. The ultrasound front-end chip contains beam-forming electronics, receiver circuitry, and analog-to-digital converters with 3-Kbyte on-chip buffer memory.     

Transverse sensitivity of piezoelectric accelerometric transducers

Conclusions The transverse sensitivity of piezoelectric acceleration transducers is caused by the lack of coincidence between the transducer's sensitivity axis and the polarization vector of the piezoelectric plate. This fact should be taken into consideration both in the production of piezoelectric elements, and in the design of transducers and their manufacture.     

Design considerations for piezoelectric polymer ultrasound transducers

Much work has been published on the design of ultrasound transducers using piezoelectric ceramics, but a great deal of this work does not apply when using the piezoelectric polymers because of their unique electrical and mechanical properties. The purpose of this paper is to review and present new insight into seven important considerations for the design of active piezoelectric polymer ultrasound transducers: piezoelectric polymer materials selection, transducer construction and packaging requirements, materials characterization and modeling, film thickness and active area design, electroding selection, backing material design, and front protection/matching layer design. Besides reviewing these design considerations, this paper also presents new insight into the design of active piezoelectric polymer ultrasonic transducers. The design and fabrication of an immersible ultrasonic transducer, which has no adhesive layer between the active element and backing layer, is included. The transducer features direct deposition of poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) [P(VDF-TrFE)] copolymer onto an insulated aluminum backing substrate. Pulse-echo tests indicated a minimum insertion loss of 37 dB and -6 dB bandwidth of 9.8 to 22 MHz (71%). The use of polymer wear-protection/quarter-wave matching layers is also discussed. Test results on a P(VDF-TrFE) transducer showed that a Mylar/sup TM/ front layer provided a slight increase in pulse-echo amplitude of 15% (or 1.2 dB) and an increase in -6 dB pulse-echo fractional bandwidth from 86 to 95%. Theoretical derivations are reported for optimizing the active area of the piezoelectric polymer element for maximum power transfer at resonance. These derivations are extended to the special case for a low profile (i.e., thin) shielded transducer. A method for modeling the non-linear loading effects of a commercial pulser-receiver is also included.     

Robotic diagnostic device using high-temperature piezoelectric transducers

An apparatus is described for remote inspection of the state of metal in nuclear power plant equipment. The high-temperature piezoelectric transducers used in the instrument section of the apparatus are described, and their technical specifications are given. Alternative ways of using the apparatus to monitor various industrial testpieces are discussed. The article is taken from a paper presented at the Scientific-Practical Conference on Piezoelectric Drivers and Sensors, held January 14–15, 1993, in the city of Obninsk.Translated from Izmeritel'naya Tekhnika, No. 9, pp. 54–56, September, 1993.     

Multilayer piezoelectric ceramics for two-dimensional array transducers

In medical ultrasound imaging, 2-D array transducers have become essential to implement dynamic focusing and phase-correction in the elevation dimension as well as real-time volumetric scanning. Unfortunately, the small size of a 2-D array element results in a small clamped capacitance and a large electrical impedance near resonance. These elements have poor sensitivity because their impedance is much higher than the electrical impedance of the transmit and receive circuitry. Sensitivity can be improved by using an N layer structure of PZT ceramic with the layers connected acoustically in series and electrically in parallel. For the multilayer ceramic (MLC), the damped capacitance is multiplied by a factor of N(2) and the electrical impedance by 1/N(2) compared to a single layer element of the same dimensions. A 3x43 phased-array transducer has been fabricated using 3 layer PZT-5H material. Each element had a thickness of 0.66 mm and an area of 0.37x3.5 mm. The MLC was manufactured using thick film technology with plated-through vias to electrically interconnect the electrode layers. The completed transducer was compared to a single layer control array of similar dimensions. With a light epoxy backing and a lambda/4 matching layer, the MLC array elements had an impedance of 100 Omega at series resonance of 2.25 MHz, compared to 800 Omega for the control elements. The lower impedance of the MLC elements resulted in a minimum round-trip insertion loss of 24.0 dB, compared to an 34.1 dB for the control array elements. These results were consistent with KLM modeling. B-scan images were made of cysts in a tissue-mimicking phantom and of the left kidney in vivo. The images clearly showed a higher signal-to-noise ratio for the MLC array compared to the control. As a result, 2-D arrays made of multilayer ceramics can be used to form images at a higher frequency and greater range than single layer arrays.     

Miniature piezoelectric hollow sphere transducers (BBs)

Miniature piezoelectric transducers were prepared from millimeter size hollow spheres which were formed from PZT-5A powder slurries using a coaxial nozzle process. After sintering, the spheres were poled in two ways: radially and tangentially. Principal modes of vibration were found to be a breathing mode near 700 kHz and a thickness mode near 13 MHz for the radially poled spheres, and an ellipsoidal, a circumferential, and a breathing mode near 230, 350, and 700 kHz, respectively, for tangentially poled spheres. Coupled modes were also observed at higher frequencies. These same modes with similar frequencies were obtained from finite element analysis using the ATILA FEM code, and experimental results were shown to be consistent with the modeling study. Hydrostatic d_h coefficients ranged between 700 and 1,800 pC/N, which is considerably higher than the d_h of bulk PZT. The hydrophone figure of merits (d_h*g_h) were calculated to be between 68,000 and 325,000*10^-15 m²/N for various types of poled spheres. These values are three orders of magnitude higher than the bulk PZT figure of merit. Potential applications include ultrasonic imaging, nondestructive testing, and hydrophones     

Characteristics of relaxor-based piezoelectric single crystals forultrasonic transducers

For ultrasonic transducers, piezoelectric ceramics offer a range of dielectric constants (K~1000-5000), large piezoelectric coefficients (d_ij~200-700 pC/N), and high electromechanical coupling (k _t≃50%, k₃₃≃75%). For several decades, the material of choice has been polycrystalline ceramics based on the solid solution Pb(Zr_1-xB_2x)O₃ (PZT), compositionally engineered near the morphotropic phase boundary (MPB). The search for alternative MPB systems has led researchers to revisit relaxor-based materials with the general formula, Pb(B₁,B₂)O₃ (B₁:Zn²⁺ , Mg²⁺, Sc³⁺, Ni²⁺..., B₂ :Nb⁵⁺ Ta⁵⁺...). There are some claims of superior dielectric and piezoelectric performance compared to that of PZT materials. However, when the properties are examined relative to transition temperature (T₃), these differences are not significant. In the single crystal form, however, Relaxor-PT materials, represented by Pb(Zn_1/3Nb_2/3)O₃-PbTiO ₃ (PZN-PT), Pb(Mg_1/3Nb_2/3)O₃-PbTiO₃ (PMN-PT) have been found to exhibit longitudinal coupling coefficients (k₃₃)>90%, thickness coupling (k_t)>83%, dielectric constants ranging from 1000 to 5000 with low dielectric loss <1%, and exceptional piezoelectric coefficients d₃₃>2000 pC/N, the later promising for high energy density actuators. For single crystal piezoelectrics to become the next generation material of ultrasonic transducers, further investigation in crystal growth, device fabrication and testing are required     

Calculation of piezoelectric transducers based on MIM structures

The conditions for optimal excitation of piezoceramic transducers are determined from the equality of the bias and conduction currents in a metal-polar insulator-metal (MIM) structure under an external electric field. Charge-carrier injection from the cathode is shown to affect the electric field strength distribution along the thickness of the insulator and the integral characteristic, i.e., the capacitance of thin-layer structures. Numerical computation indicates that in the case of piezoceramic plates 0.4&#x2013;0.5 mm thick electron emission from the cathode is possible at voltages of 5&#x2013;8 V.Translated from Izmeritel'naya Tekhnika, No. 2, pp. 50&#x2013;54, February, 1995.     

Sandwiched piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers oflongitudinal-torsional compound vibrational modes

Sandwiched piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers of longitudinal-torsional compound vibrational modes were studied. The transducers consist of coaxially segmented, longitudinally and tangentially polarized piezoelectric ceramic rings, a back metal cylinder, and a front exponential solid metal horn. Based on the plane-wave approximation, the equivalent circuits of the longitudinal and torsional vibrations in the sandwiched transducer were obtained and the resonance frequency equations of the transducer in longitudinal and torsional vibrations were derived. By means of choosing the radius decay coefficient of the front exponential horn, the longitudinal and torsional vibrations are made to resonate at the same frequency in the transducer. Sandwiched piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers of longitudinal-torsional compound modes were designed and fabricated according to the frequency equations. It is demonstrated that the measured resonance frequencies of the transducers are in good agreement with the theoretical results, and the measured resonance frequencies of the transducers in longitudinal and torsional vibration modes are also in good agreement with each other. Theoretical and experimental results show that this kind of transducer can be used in ultrasonic welding, ultrasonic machining, ultrasonic motors, and other ultrasonic applications which need large displacement amplitudes     

Numerical modeling of piezoelectric transducers using physical parameters

Design of ultrasonic equipment is frequently facilitated with numerical models. These numerical models, however, need a calibration step, because usually not all characteristics of the materials used are known. Characterization of material properties combined with numerical simulations and experimental data can be used to acquire valid estimates of the material parameters. In our design application, a finite element (FE) model of an ultrasonic particle separator, driven by an ultrasonic transducer in thickness mode, is required. A limited set of material parameters for the piezoelectric transducer were obtained from the manufacturer, thus preserving prior physical knowledge to a large extent. The remaining unknown parameters were estimated from impedance analysis with a simple experimental setup combined with a numerical optimization routine using 2-D and 3-D FE models. Thus, a full set of physically interpretable material parameters was obtained for our specific purpose. The approach provides adequate accuracy of the estimates of the material parameters, near 1%. These parameter estimates will subsequently be applied in future design simulations, without the need to go through an entire series of characterization experiments. Finally, a sensitivity study showed that small variations of 1% in the main parameters caused changes near 1% in the eigenfrequency, but changes up to 7% in the admittance peak, thus influencing the efficiency of the system. Temperature will already cause these small variations in response; thus, a frequency control unit is required when actually manufacturing an efficient ultrasonic separation system.