Discrepant gender patterns for cyberbullying and traditional bullying – An analysis of Swedish adolescent data

In the wake of the rapid development of modern IT technology, cyberspace bullying has emerged among adolescents. The aim of the present study was to examine gender differences among adolescents involved in traditional bullying and cyberbullying. Cross-sectional data from 2989 Swedish students aged 13–15 were analyzed using logistic regression analysis. The results show discrepant gender patterns of involvement in traditional bullying and cyberbullying. First, although there were only minimal gender differences among traditional victims, girls are more likely than boys to be cybervictims when occasional cyberbullying is used as a cut-off point. Second, whereas boys are more likely to be traditional bullies, girls are as likely as boys to be cyberbullies. In conclusion, compared to traditional bullying, girls are generally more involved in cyberbullying relative to boys. We discuss these results in the light of adolescents’ usage of computerized devices.     

Cyberbullying myths and realities

Bullying has long been a concern of youth advocates (e.g., educators, counselors, researchers, policy makers). Recently, cyberbullying (bullying perpetrated through online technology) has dominated the headlines as a major current-day adolescent challenge. This article reviews available empirical research to examine the accuracy of commonly-perpetuated claims about cyberbullying. The analysis revealed several myths about the nature and extent of cyberbullying that are being fueled by media headlines and unsubstantiated public declarations. These myths include that (a) everyone knows what cyberbullying is; (b) cyberbullying is occurring at epidemic levels; (c) cyberbullying causes suicide; (d) cyberbullying occurs more often now than traditional bullying; (e) like traditional bullying, cyberbullying is a rite of passage; (f) cyberbullies are outcasts or just mean kids; and (g) to stop cyberbullying, just turn off your computer or cell phone. These assertions are clarified using data that are currently available so that adults who work with youth will have an accurate understanding of cyberbullying to better assist them in effective prevention and response. Implications for prevention efforts in education in light of these revelations are also discussed and include effective school policies, educating students and stakeholders, the role of peer helper programs, and responsive services (e.g., counseling).     

Does the offline bully-victimization influence cyberbullying behavior among youths? Application of General Strain Theory

The current study attempts to examine the relationship between traditional bullyvictimization and cyberbullying behavior based on General Strain Theory perspectives. Offline bullyvictimization can create negative emotional strains. This negative strain combined with the anonymity in cyber space may lead youths to be engaged in cyberbullying behavior as the externalized response to the strain. Using longitudinal Korean National Youth Survey data, this study empirically tested the above theoretical explanation. First, this study found the declining trend of cyberbullying engagement among Korean youths. Secondly, consistent with GST, offline bully-victimization was significantly related to the cyberbullying engagement. Youths who were victims of traditional bullying showed a higher tendency of becoming cyberbullying assaulters with externalizing their strain in cyberspace.     

Exploring cyberbullying and face-to-face bullying in working life – Prevalence,targets and expressions

While cyberbullying among children and adolescents is a well-investigated phenomenon, few studies have centred on adults' exposure to cyberbullying in working life. Drawing on a large sample of 3371 respondents, this study investigates the prevalence of cyberbullying and face-to-face bullying in Swedish working life and its relation to gender and organisational position. Using a cyberbullying behaviour questionnaire (CBQ), the result shows that 9.7% of the respondents can be labelled as cyberbullied in accordance with Leymann's cut-off criterion. Fewer respondents, .7%, labelled themselves as cyberbullied and 3.5% labelled themselves as bullied face-to-face. While no significant relationships with gender or organisational position was found for individuals exposed to face-to-face bullying, this study showed that men to a higher degree than women were exposed to cyberbullying. Moreover, individuals with a supervisory position were more exposed to cyberbullying than individuals with no managerial responsibility.     

Cyberbullying and Cyberviolence Detection: A Triangular User-Activity-Content View

Recent years have witnessed the increasing popularity of mobile and networking devices, as well as social networking sites, where users engage in a variety of activities in the cyberspace on a daily and real-time basis. While such systems provide tremendous convenience and enjoyment for users, malicious usages, such as bullying, cruelty, extremism, and toxicity behaviors, also grow noticeably, and impose significant threats to individuals and communities. In this paper, we review computational approaches for cyberbullying and cyberviolence detection, in order to understand two major factors: 1) What are the defining features of online bullying users, and 2) How to detect cyberbullying and cyberviolence. To achieve the goal, we propose a user-activities-content (UAC) triangular view, which defines that users in the cyberspace are centered around the UAC triangle to carry out activities and generate content. Accordingly, we categorize cyberbully features into three main categories: 1) User centered features, 2) Content centered features, and 3) Activity centered features. After that, we review methods for cyberbully detection, by taking supervised, unsupervised, transfer learning, and deep learning, etc., into consideration. The UAC centered view provides a coherent and complete summary about features and characteristics of online users (their activities), approaches to detect bullying users (and malicious content), and helps defend cyberspace from bullying and toxicity.      

The emotional impact of cyberbullying: Differences in perceptions and experiences as a function of role

Research is accumulating to confirm adverse consequences of cyberbullying. Less is known about the perceptions, expectations and reactions of those involved as a function of their different roles (e.g., as bullies, victims, bully-victims) and how this relates to their experiences of traditional bullying. We examined whether cyberbullies' beliefs about the impact of their actions reflects the impact as reported by cybervictims themselves. We tested also whether the emotional reactions to cyberbullying differed depending upon whether the victim was or was not also a victim of traditional bullying behaviours. Participants were 1353 Spanish adolescents. Approximately 8% reported experiences of cyberbullying (compared to 12% reporting experiences of traditional bullying). Cyberbullies believed that their victims would experience more discomfort than cybervictims actually reported experiencing. Those who had experienced victimization in both traditional and cyber contexts evaluated cyberbullying as having greater negative impact than did those who had experienced victimization only in cyber contexts. Perceptions differed according to role and the context(s) in which bullying has been experienced. Findings are discussed in relation to the ways in which technologically delivered aggression may differ from traditional bullying.     

An analysis of multiple factors of cyberbullying among junior high school students in Taiwan

Cyberbullying, as a serious kind of repeated, intentional, and harmful aggressive behavior, cannot be ignored. In light of the limited studies and inconsistent findings on the matter, this study explores cyberbullying’s frequency and other factors (gender, academic achievement, types of technologies used, and anonymity) relevant to both the issue itself and the East Asian context. The interrelationship of different roles (bullies, victims, and bystanders) in cyberbullying is also examined. A survey was conducted with 545 Taiwan junior high school students. The results indicate that male students were more likely to bully others in cyberspace and that cyberbullying was not affected by one’s level of academic achievement. Regarding the various technologies and various country-specific cyberbullying forms pertinent to technology users, instant messenger (IM) users experienced significantly more cyberbullying than users of other technologies. The survey results also indicate that the anonymity of cyberbullying was not a pertinent factor. The study found that the dominant attitude toward cyberbullying was indifference, raising alarms about the lack of cyberbullying prevention. Peers, who were the people most teenagers would likely turn to when experiencing cyberbullying, usually took no action because of their tendency to avoid conflicts and to maintain group harmony. In its interpretation of the findings, this study emphasizes Taiwan’s context, including Confucian philosophy.     

Does cyberbullying overlap with school bullying when taking modality of involvement into account?

Education professionals and researchers are concerned by school bullying and cyberbullying because of its repercussions on students’ health and the school climate. However, only a few studies investigating the impact of school versus cyberbullying have systematically explored whether student victims and perpetrators are involved in school bullying only, cyberbullying only, or both. The aim of the present study was thus to examine the possible overlap, as well as the similarities and/or differences, between these two forms of bullying when taking modality of involvement into account. Individual interviews were conducted with 1422 junior high- and high-school students (girls = 43%, boys = 57%, mean age = 14.3 ± 2.7 years). Results showed that cyberbullying and school bullying overlapped very little. The majority of students involved in cyberbullying were not simultaneously involved in school bullying. Moreover, results indicated that psychosocial problems (psychological distress, social disintegration, general aggression) varied according to the form of bullying. Victims of school bullying had greater internalizing problems than cybervictims, while school bullies were more aggressive than cyberbullies. Given the sizable proportion of adolescents involved in bullying (school and cyber) and its significant relationship with mental health, the issue warrants serious attention from school and public health authorities.     

The nature of cyberbullying,and strategies for prevention

Cyberbullying has been identified as an important problem amongst youth in the last decade. This paper reviews some recent findings and discusses general concepts within the area. The review covers definitional issues such as repetition and power imbalance, types of cyberbullying, age and gender differences, overlap with traditional bullying and sequence of events, differences between cyberbullying and traditional bullying, motives for and impact of cyber victimization, coping strategies, and prevention/intervention possibilities. These issues will be illustrated by reference to recent and current literature, and also by in-depth interviews with nine Swedish students aged 13–15 years, who had some first-hand experience of one or more cyberbullying episodes. We conclude by discussing the evidence for different coping, intervention and prevention strategies.     

The changing face of bullying: An empirical comparison between traditional and internet bullying and victimization

Electronic aggression, or cyberbullying, is a relatively new phenomenon. As such, consistency in how the construct is defined and operationalized has not yet been achieved, inhibiting a thorough understanding of the construct and how it relates to developmental outcomes. In a series of two studies, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (EFAs and CFAs respectively) were used to examine whether electronic aggression can be measured using items similar to that used for measuring traditional bullying, and whether adolescents respond to questions about electronic aggression in the same way they do for traditional bullying. For Study I (n = 17 551; 49% female), adolescents in grades 8-12 were asked to what extent they had experience with physical, verbal, social, and cyberbullying as a bully and victim. EFA and CFA results revealed that adolescents distinguished between the roles they play (bully, victim) in a bullying situation but not forms of bullying (physical, verbal, social, cyber). To examine this further, Study II (n = 733; 62% female), asked adolescents between the ages of 11 and 18 to respond to questions about their experience sending (bully), receiving (victim), and/or seeing (witness) specific online aggressive acts. EFA and CFA results revealed that adolescents did not differentiate between bullies, victims, and witnesses; rather, they made distinctions among the methods used for the aggressive act (i.e. sending mean messages or posting embarrassing pictures). In general, it appears that adolescents differentiated themselves as individuals who participated in specific mode of online aggression, rather than as individuals who played a particular role in online aggression. This distinction is discussed in terms of policy and educational implications.     

Facebook bullying: An extension of battles in school

This study examines the phenomenon of cyberbullying on Facebook and how it is related to school bullying among secondary school students in Singapore, aged 13–17. We also focus on generic use of Facebook and risky Facebook behaviors as the predictors of cyberbullying and victimization on Facebook. 1676 secondary students, from two secondary schools, participated in a pen and paper survey. The findings show that the intensity of Facebook use and engagement in risky Facebook behaviors were related to Facebook victimization and Facebook bullying, respectively. Moderately strong positive relationships between school bullying and Facebook bullying, as well as between school victimization and Facebook victimization, were also uncovered.     

Cyberbullying on social network sites. An experimental study into bystanders’ behavioural intentions to help the victim or reinforce the bully

Cyberbullying on social network sites poses a significant threat to the mental and physical health of victimized adolescents. Although the role of bystanders in solving bullying instances has been demonstrated repeatedly in research on traditional bullying, their role in cyberbullying remains relatively understudied. Therefore, we set up an experimental scenario study in order to examine the influence of contextual factors (severity of the incident, identity and behaviour of other bystanders) on bystanders’ behavioural intentions to help the victim or reinforce the bully in cases of harassment on Facebook. Four hundred and fifty-three second year students of Flemish secondary schools participated in the study. The results on the one hand showed that bystanders had higher behavioural intentions to help the victim when they witnessed a more severe incident. Incident severity also interacted with other bystanders’ identity in influencing behavioural intentions to help the victim. On the other hand, bystanders had higher behavioural intentions to join in the bullying when other bystanders were good friends rather than acquaintances. In addition, an interaction effect was found between other bystanders’ identity and behaviour on behavioural intentions to join in the bullying. Furthermore, both helping and reinforcing behavioural intentions differed according to gender.     

Cybervictimization and cyberbullying: The mediating role of anger,don’t anger me!

Recent research has revealed relationship between cybervictimization and cyberbullying, but the possible role of anger as a mediating factor between cybervictimization and cyberbullying remains an area for further clarification. The purpose of this study was to analyze the direct and indirect relationships among cybervictimization, anger expression styles, and cyberbullying, and to test whether anger expression styles mediates the relationship between cybervictimization and cyberbullying in the context of General Strain Theory (GST). Data for the present study were collected from 687 undergraduate students with a mean age of 22.45 years (SD = 2.42). Participants completed cyberbullying, cybervictimization and anger expression scales. Structural equation modeling was used to test two models: one to examine direct and indirect relationships and one to examine only indirect relationships in which cyberbullying predicted anger-in and anger-out which in turn predicted cyberbullying. Analyses of fit indices showed that both models were adequate fits for the data. The findings provide evidence of direct effects of cybervictimization on cyberbullying and indirect effects of cybervictimization on cyberbullying mediated by anger-in. Specifically, results showed that cybervictimization was positively and directly related to anger-in and anger-out, and indirectly related to cyberbullying through anger-in. Prevention programs in schools can be applied to improve students’ emotion regulation and anger control, not only in the context of overt aggression, but also in cyberspace.     

Adolescents' perception of the characterizing dimensions of cyberbullying: Differentiation between bullies' and victims' perceptions

Being aware of the adolescents perceptions' on cyberbullying is one of the main factors that determine the real prevalence of this phenomenon and allows the adequacy of intervention programs. The objectives pursued in this study were: (a) to determine the perceptions adolescents have about cyberbullying and cyber abuse; and (b) to analyse the influence of experiences of cybervictimization and cyberaggression on the perception of cyberbullying and its various forms. The sample consisted of 1753 adolescents of 12–16 years in age. The instrument used to acquire the data was a questionnaire. The results reveal that, of the 5 identifying criteria of cyberbullying, Spanish adolescents have recourse to just three: intent to hurt, imbalance of power, and advertising. Also, this study shows that verbal and visual aggressions, far from being interpreted as forms of cyberbullying, are considered to be mechanisms that foster and facilitate their communication and interaction. Although the victims and aggressors allude to the same set of identifying criteria, the aggressors emphasize the imbalance of power criterion as against the intent to hurt. For the victims, the intentionality being the primary factor, followed by advertising, while the imbalance of power is relegated to a background role.     

Cyberbullying among college students with disabilities

Cyberbullying has received increasing attention in recent years. However, the majority of this research has focused on children in middle school and on neurotypical youth, to the omission of people with disabilities. The current study, however, examines cyberbullying as it occurs among college students with and without disabilities. Two hundred five students completed a survey examining their experiences with cyberbullying, along with measures of predictor and outcome variables theorized to be related to cyberbullying. The results revealed that, as with traditional bullying, students with disabilities are at particular risk for cyberbullying victimization. Predictors of victimization included traditional bullying victimization, Internet use, and the noticeability of the disability. Outcomes of cyberbullying victimization (e.g., low self-esteem, high depression) appear to be particularly pronounced for individuals with disabilities.     

Revisiting cyberbullying: Perspectives from Taiwanese teachers

Cyberbullying among students has received extensive attention from researchers and educators. Most research is, however, based on student reports while teachers' perceptions of this aggressive behavior among students have rarely been studied. We surveyed 2821 Taiwanese teachers on their perceptions of cyberbullying among students, including the types and tools, the ability to remain anonymous, students' responses, and their own practices of handling cyberbullying incidents at school. The results showed that teachers believed that the circulation of embarrassing pictures and videos was the most prevalent type of cyberbullying but that instant messaging was the most frequently used tool. Our findings also revealed teachers' tendency of overestimating students' willingness to report cyberbullying. The students' grade level that the teachers taught and whether they take on administrative duties were found to influence their perceptions of student cyberbullying. We found that teachers were not confident to handle cyberbullying incidents and we suggest that anti-cyberbullying training be included in teacher education.     

Cyberbullying in social networking sites: An adolescent victim’s perspective

Online social networking sites (SNS) are a ubiquitous platform for communication. However, SNS can provide opportunities for abuse and harassment, typically referred to as cyberbullying. The current study examined adolescent victims’ understanding of cyberbullying, the specific types of cyberbullying events experienced in SNS and the impact of these events. Twenty-five adolescents (15–24 years old) who responded to an invitation for participants with previous negative experiences in SNS took part in individual semi-structured interviews. Results showed that the basic criteria for the definition of cyberbullying published in previous research were either not referenced by participants, or they were more complex than initially anticipated. The most referenced criterion was the extent to which the experience had an impact on the victim, which is not a current definitional criterion. It was also found that 68% of victims reported experiencing a combined emotional, social and behavioural impact for each cyberbullying experience, and 12% reported no impact at all. These findings will contribute to the measurement of cyberbullying from the perspective of victims, and will also aid the development of intervention strategies based on the most common impact areas.     

Loneliness,parent-child communication and cyberbullying victimization among Spanish youths

Cyberbullying has been recognized as an important risk factor for mental health. Few studies have analyzed relationships between family variables and cyberbullying victimization. This ex post facto study analyze the relationships between loneliness, parent-child communication and different groups of cyberbullying victims (non-involved, occasional and severe; and an extreme case of cyberbullying, daily victims). A battery of instruments was applied to 813 Spanish adolescents in grades 7–10 (loneliness, parent-child communication and cyberbullying victimization). Their parents completed the parent-child communication scale. Logistic regressions analyses were applied to determine if cyberbullying victimization is associated with loneliness and parent-child communication. The results showed that adolescents' reports of avoidant communication with the mother was associated with occasional cyberbullying victimization. Adolescents' reports of avoidant communication with the mother and feelings of loneliness were associated with severe cyberbullying victimization. Additionally, parents’ reports of offensive communication was associated with severe cyberbullying victimization. The results of this study highlight the association of communication family problems with cyberbullying victimization.     

The new face of violence tendency:Cyber bullying perpetrators and their victims

The present study examines the role of violence tendecy on cyberbullying perpetrations and their victims. Turkish adolescents [N = 286, 167 girls (58,4%) and 119 boys (41,6%)] aged 15–18 years [mean age of 17.6 years (df:0.78)] were recruited from different high school types [101 (35.4%) of the participants were students in vocational high school, 88 (30.7%) anatolian high school and 97 (33.9%) public high school]. Participants completed Revised Cyber Bullying Inventory (RCBI, Topçu & Erdur-Baker, 2010) and Violence Tendency Scale (VTS, Haskan & Yıldırım, 2012). Collected data were analyzed Pearson correlation coefficients and simple regression. Pearson correlations revealed that violence tendency was positively related to cyberbullying perpetration (r = 0.344, p < 0.01). Also, violence tendency was positively related to cyber victimization (r = 0.242, p < 0.01). Also simple regressions revealed that violence tendency was significant individual predictors both cyberbullying perpetration and cyber victimization.     

Characteristics of college cyberbullies

Cyberbullying is a newer variation of bullying that utilizes technology to harass. This study investigated the psychological symptomology, suicidal behaviors, aggressive tendencies, and illegal behaviors of college cyberbullies. Sixty cyberbullies and 19 cyberbully/victims (participants who cyberbullied and were victims of cyberbullying) scored higher in psychological symptoms of depression, hostility, interpersonal sensitivity, paranoia, phobic anxiety, and psychoticism than participants who were uninvolved with cyberbullying. The cyberbullies also endorsed more suicidal behaviors and scored higher in aggression. The cyberbully/victims engaged in more violent and drug crimes than cyberbullies and controls. These findings indicate perpetrators of cyberbullying have more psychological distress, aggressive tendencies, and engage in more illegal behaviors than those who do not cyberbully. This is the first study to show the distress cyberbullies are experiencing.