Schizotypal personality traits and problematic use of massively-multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs)

A link between maladaptive personality traits and an excessive use of massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) has been documented. However, the role of schizotypal personality traits in MMORPG use is understudied. The aim of this study was to explore the potential links between schizotypal traits, motivations for playing MMORPGs, and symptoms of problematic MMORPG use. Eighty-three MMORPG gamers were enrolled in the study. They filled out questionnaires measuring schizotypal personality traits and an adapted version of the same scale designed to measure in-game schizotypal traits. All participants also filled out questionnaires assessing motivations for gaming and disordered use of MMORPGs. Results of the study showed that the disorganized and interpersonal traits of schizotypy decreased when participants were thinking about themselves in the virtual world. Schizotypal traits, together with achievement and immersion motives, predicted problematic use of MMORPGs. The findings of this study may suggest that schizotypal traits and motivations for playing can interact and play a pivotal role in the onset and maintenance of problematic gaming.     

The differences in motivations of online game players and offline game players: A combined analysis of three studies at higher education level

Computer games have become a highly popular form of entertainment and have had a large impact on how University students spend their leisure time. Due to their highly motivating properties computer games have come to the attention of educationalists who wish to exploit these highly desirable properties for educational purposes. Several studies have been performed looking at motivations for playing computer games in a general context and in a Higher Education (HE) context. These studies did not focus on the differences in motivations between online and offline game players. Equally the studies did not look at the differences in motivations of people who prefer single player games and people who prefer multiplayer games. If games-based learning is to become a recognised teaching approach then such motivations for playing computer games must be better understood. This paper presents the combined analysis of three studies at HE level, performed over a four year period from 2005 to 2009. The paper focuses on differences of motivations in relation to single player/multiplayer preference and online/offline game participation. The study found that challenge is the top ranking motivation and recognition is the lowest ranking motivation for playing computer games in general. Challenge is also the top ranking motivation for playing games in HE while fantasy and recognition are the lowest ranking motivations for playing games in HE. Multiplayer gamers derive more competition, cooperation, recognition, fantasy and curiosity from playing games and online gamers derive more challenge, cooperation, recognition and control from playing games. Multiplayer gamers and online gamers ranked competition, cooperation and recognition significantly more important for playing games in HE than single players and offline participants.     

The Trojan Player Typology: A cross-genre,cross-cultural,behaviorally validated scale of video game play motivations

While many video game researchers have built scales to tackle the motivations that people have for playing video games, these scales are often limited by their focus on specific game genres or player cultures as well as their lack of behavioral validation. The present research offers a new scale for player motivations and then examines its validity across two distinct gaming genres and cultures, drawing from server-side data combined with survey data of 18,627 players of the Multiplayer Online Battle Arena League of Legends and 18,819 players of the Chinese Massively Multiplayer Online Game Chevalier’s Romance Online 3. Six types of player motivations were found: socializer, completionist, competitor, escapist, story-driven, and smarty-pants. Consistent with previous research on player motivations, this typology offers new insights into why people play video games and how player motivations can be used to infer players’ in-game behaviors.     

Understanding massively multiplayer online role‐playing game addiction: A hedonic management perspective

Massively multiplayer online role‐playing game (MMORPG) addiction presents a serious issue worldwide and has attracted increasing attention from academic and other public communities. This article addresses this critical issue and fills research gaps by proposing and testing a research model of MMORPG addiction. Building on the conceptual foundation of the hedonic management model of addiction and the technology affordance perspective, we develop a research model explaining how MMORPG affordances (ie, achievement, social and immersion affordances) are associated with the duality of hedonic effects (ie, perceived positive mood enhancement and perceived negative mood reduction) and the extent of MMORPG addiction. Using structural equation modelling, we empirically test our research model with 406 MMORPG players. The results show that both perceived positive mood enhancement and perceived negative mood reduction positively correlate with the extent of MMORPG addiction. Furthermore, achievement and immersion affordances are positively associated with the duality of hedonic effects, whereas social affordance is not. Our study contributes to the growing body of technology addiction literature by revealing the relationships between the two hedonic effects and the extent of MMORPG addiction, and by offering a contextualised explanation of the role of MMORPG affordances in these relationships. We offer an alternative perspective on the far‐reaching, unintended relationships between technological affordances and addictive technology use. Our study provides game developers and policymakers with insights into preventing MMORPG addiction to create an entertaining, healthy virtual playground.     

Explaining behavior in brand communities: A sequential model of attachment,tribalism, and self-esteem

Given their societal presence, brand communities and tribes must, in some capacity, influence marketing strategy. With a player base exceeding 50 million and annual sales surpassing $12 billion, the massively multiplayer online role playing game (MMORPG) community is considered a burgeoning cultural and economic consumer segment. Yet, quantitative examination of MMORPG community members' consumptive processes is sparse. To help fill this research lacuna, the current study tests a sequential choice model of attachment, tribalism, and self-esteem on MMORPG-related behavioral outcomes. Using a sample 970 MMORPG players, support is offered for the posited model, indicating among others, that brand attachment antecedes MMORPG brand tribalism, which in turn, augments player self-esteem. Implications and future research directions are offered.     

A model of cognitive loads in massively multiplayer online role playing games

Being one of the most commercially successful entertainment software applications, massively multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPGs) continue to expand in term of the revenue they generate as well as the involvement of users who congregate in their virtual space and form communities around them to support each other. Unlike conventional offline computer games, or networked games with limited numbers of players, MMORPGs are not merely software applications as they are usually seen as a space with complicated dynamics of social interactions. Hence, it is believed that playing these games might cause cognitive overload problems among the players as they have to constantly interact with the game world as well as with other users. We conducted an exploratory study using qualitative methods to explore cognitive overloads in Maple Story, a typical MMORPG. Our results reveal that several types of cognitive overloads emerge during the game playing. While some of these overloads pose serious problems even to expert players, players seem to develop strategies to overcome them. It is found that some forms of cognitive load are actually desirable in order to make the game challenging. We have also created a set of recommendations that can help game developers handle cognitive load problems in MMORPGs.     

Effectiveness of MMORPG‐based instruction in elementary English education in Korea

This study investigated the effectiveness of massive multiplayer online role‐playing game (MMORPG)‐based (massive multiplayer online role‐playing game) instruction in elementary English education. The effectiveness of the MMORPG program was compared with face‐to‐face instruction and the independent variables (gender, prior knowledge, motivation for learning, self‐directed learning skills, computer skills, game skills, computer capacity, network speed, and computer accessibility) were examined to see how accurately achievement was predicted in MMORPG instruction. The results indicated that students studying English utilizing online role‐playing games showed higher scores in areas of listening, reading, and writing than those who attended face‐to‐face instruction classes. It was also found that prior knowledge, motivation for learning, and network speed were factors affecting achievement in English learning. These findings suggest that MMORPGs can play an important role in improving English communicative skills.     

Validating the distinction between computer addiction and engagement: online game playing and personality

This article considers validatory evidence for the previously made distinction between (pathological) computing-related addictions and (non-pathological) high engagement in computing activities, and an associated distinction between core and peripheral criteria for diagnosing computing-related addictions. Using data provided by 388 players of a massively multiplayer online role playing game (MMORPG) via an online questionnaire, psychometric measures of engagement and addiction to the MMORPG taking into account the distinction between core and peripheral addiction criteria are shown to be differentially related to personality factors (extraversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, negative valence, and attractiveness). Addiction scale scores are shown to increase as negativity on all five personality characteristics increases, with these characteristics predicting 20% of the variance in addiction scores, but the same pattern is shown to occur for only one characteristic (negative valence) for the engagement scale, with personality characteristics predicting only around 2% of the variance in engagement scores. It is concluded that there is reasonable support for the distinctions between addiction and engagement and between core and peripheral criteria. Implications are discussed.     

“Reliving my Childhood Dream of being a Pokémon Trainer”: An Exploratory Study of College Student Uses and Gratifications Related to Pokémon Go

Pokémon Go is an interactive mobile game that was launched in July 2016. The current exploratory study recruited college students (n = 278) who currently played, no longer played, or had never played Pokémon Go to understand their lived experiences with this game and determine differences in perceived behavioral outcomes of playing between current and past players. The research team implemented a Uses and Gratifications (U&G) theoretical framework and qualitative research design. Three themes were identified through qualitative content analysis and included: (a) limitations to playing Pokémon Go, (b) motivations for playing Pokémon Go, and (c) social consequences of playing Pokémon Go. Results are discussed in connection with U&G.     

The relationship between online game playing motivation and selection of online game characters – the case of Taiwan

The alarming growth rate in the online game industry calls for a need of understanding the determinants of online gamers’ behaviour. Investigating how online gamers choose different online characters assists online game vendors to design characters that match the needs of different online gamers. Recently, numerous online game designers have introduced celebrity figures as characters for certain online games. The popularity of those celebrities has resulted in greater awareness of these games, and hopefully further increases the playability of online games. While different online gamers are motivated by different desires for playing, it is insufficiently researched whether these online celebrity characters have actually altered players’ choice in giving preference to these games. Thus, this study conducts an experimental design to study the reasons behind players’ choice of characters by studying how online games perceive the interpersonal attractiveness of celebrity online characters, and how online gamers with different playing motivations display different behaviours in their choice of online game characters. Results from the survey filled out by participants after the experiments show that the attractiveness of celebrity online characters is significantly higher than that of non-celebrity characters. Further, online game players with a social playing motivation tend to choose celebrities as their online game characters.     

Interactive effects of individual- and group-level variables on virtual purchase behavior in online communities

Focusing on social network theories, we examine the interactive influence of both group-level (i.e. community influences) and individual-level variables (intrinsic and extrinsic motivations) simultaneously as the drivers of Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG) players’ virtual purchase behavior. We demonstrate that several aspects of real-world behavior are reflected in virtual purchase behavior. Notably, normative interpersonal influences and community identity are critical drivers and moderators of virtual purchases. Moreover, clear advancement and enjoyment opportunities offer important triggers for virtual purchase behavior. This study provides insights for game developers to increase virtual purchases, and identifies domain-specificity of each gaming platform.     

Why girls go pink: Game character identification and game-players’ motivations

Based on social role theory and uses and gratifications, this study provides insights into the popularity of so-called pink games. This study is the first to examine the roles of identification, playing time, and age in the experience of motivations while playing an online role-playing game. Drawing upon a survey among 2261 girls between10 and 17 of age, our results show that identification with characters in the game is an important process in explaining girls’ gaming motivations. In addition, identification and motivations are intensified with playing time. Although age affects identification negatively, age is not related to the most important motive in playing pink games: social interaction. This study has important theoretical and practical implications for the popularity of pink games among girls.     

Do World of Warcraft (MMORPG) players experience less loneliness and social anxiety in online world (virtual environment) than in real world (offline)?

The number of online game players continues to grow, as well as the number of hours spent in online world. World of Warcraft (WoW) is one of the most popular Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPG). It is set in an elaborate fictional world, in which players achieve goals through interaction and mutual communication. The present study verified differences in experiencing loneliness (UCLA Loneliness Scale) and social anxiety (Social Phobia Inventory) in WoW players in online and real world (offline) since these two worlds and the functioning of the players in them differ. In the sample consisting of 161 players, it was found that players experience a significantly lower degree of loneliness and social anxiety in online than in real world. The lower degree of loneliness experienced was also associated with playing with friends and known people, with guild membership, as well as frequent communication with teammates through VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) services. The results suggest that WoW is a highly social environment that encourages cooperation, communication and friendship.     

Predicting guild commitment in World of Warcraft with the investment model of commitment

Many MMORPG offer players the possibility to become a member of a guild, a hierarchical organization of characters with common objectives. Guild membership can be beneficial to game progress, and offer opportunities for social interaction. In the current study we focus on the MMORPG World of Warcraft (WoW), with the main aim to examine whether guild commitment and players’ intention to remain in their guild can be predicted by players’ satisfaction, investments, and perceptions of alternatives to their guild. To this end, 165 WoW players completed an online questionnaire and answered questions related to their guild membership. They also completed the investment model scale which was reworded so all questions pertained to their guild and their fellow guild members. Results show that satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size significantly predict commitment level (p’s < .001), which in turn predicted likelihood of participants’ staying with their current guild (p < .001) and the number of guilds they had been a member of in the past (p < .001). Moreover, high levels of guild commitment were indicative of better mental health, whereas weekly hours of game play was negatively related to mental health. In the discussion, we conclude that interdependence theory and the investment model of commitment are applicable to online gaming environments, and we argue that commitment to one’s guild is one factor that could prevent the risks associated with online game play (i.e. problematic use).     

Gaming-contingent self-worth,gaming motivation,and Internet Gaming Disorder

The relationship between problematic gaming behavior and self-esteem is well-documented (King & Delfabbro, 2014). Moreover, the basic needs component of Self-Determination Theory has also been proposed as an organizing framework to understand gaming motivation (Lafrenière et al., 2012, Ryan et al., 2006). Building on these ideas, the current study describes the development of a measure of contingent self-worth (Crocker et al., 2003, Crocker and Wolfe, 2001) specific to gaming experiences within Massively-Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPGs), and explores the association between Gaming-Contingent Self-Worth (GCSW) and symptoms of Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD). A sample of MMORPG players was recruited through Amazon's Mechanical Turk (n = 600) to evaluate the reliability and validity of a GCSW scale. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis was used to identify a 29-item measure comprised of four components, including validation seeking, reward orientation, competition focus, and detachment. Additional analyses supported the hypothesis that GCSW is a strong predictor of IGD symptoms, beyond the contribution of motivation based on behavioral activities within the game.     

大型多人在线角色扮演游戏的下一地点预测

近年来,大型多人在线角色扮演游戏(MMORPG)已经成为最流行的网络娱乐活动之一。MMORPG在游戏环境中形成虚拟社会,其中每个玩家扮演某个虚构角色,并控制该角色的大多数活动。游戏的迅猛发展累积了海量数据,其中包含游戏虚拟社会的语义和拓扑信息。研究者针对游戏数据开展了一系列研究工作,如玩家退出预测、游戏服务器整合等。游戏角色的下一地点预测对提升游戏体验、改善游戏设计和检测游戏机器人均有十分重要的意义。目前,该项预测任务主要使用统计分析完成。然而,由于游戏数据具有海量特征,因此需要一种自动化的计算方法。文中提出了基于隐马尔科夫模型的游戏角色下一地点预测模型,该模型能够考虑与位置特性相关的不可观测的属性,同时兼顾游戏角色前期行为的影响。实验结果表明,与现有方法相比,该方法具有建模直观的特点,在稠密分布的MMORPG数据中能够得到更准确的下一地点预测结果。     

How to ameliorate negative effects of violent video games on cooperation: Play it cooperatively in a team

The present research tests the idea that playing a team-player video game in which players work together as teammates and assist each other in achieving a common goal ameliorates the negative effects of violent video game play on cooperative behavior. In fact, two studies revealed that, relative to a single-player mode, playing a cooperative team-player violent video game increased cooperation in a decision dilemma task. Importantly, cooperative behavior generalized across targets in that the decision dilemma was played with a partner who was not the video game play partner. Mediation analyses revealed that cooperative team-play promoted feelings of cohesion, which activated trust norms, which in turn increased cooperative behavior.     

Impasse-driven learning in the context of video games

This study was designed to elucidate the problem-solving skills used by frequent and infrequent video game players to negotiate impasses encountered while playing a novel video game. All participants were instructed to think aloud while playing a video game for 20 consecutive minutes. Comments made were then used to make inferences about the problem-solving skills that participants used to resolve impasses encountered during the game. Findings showed that frequent players made significantly greater reference to insight and game strategies than infrequent players. After reaching an impasse, all players also were most likely to comment on their game progress and potential game strategies to use. Over the course of game play, all participants showed increasing emphasis on their problem-solving skills as evidenced through their greater mention of insight, game strategies, and goal comments.     

Beyond the fascination of online-games: Probing addictive behavior and depression in the world of online-gaming

This study examined problematic gaming behavior and depressive tendencies among people who play different types of online-games. Other game-related variables were investigated to determine if other differences between three game types could be established. Participants in the current research (n = 468) can be classified into three independent groups. Subjected users either solely played massive multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) or they preferred online-ego-shooters (OES) or real-time-strategy games (RTS). Results indicate that MMORPG users show more often problematic gaming behavior, depressive tendencies and lower self-esteem compared to users playing other online-games. MMORPG users reported to playing significantly more often in order to escape from real-life problems, which might be a valuable coping strategy but might also lead to problematic gaming behavior.     

Defining the lines between virtual and real world purchases: Second Life sells,but who’s buying?

The present study examines the virtual spending habits of Residents in Second Life, a unique Massively Multi-player Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG) with a thriving economy where virtual goods and services are purchased with real money. Large corporations are entering the virtual worlds of MMORPGs through advertising; yet, few studies have examined the relationship between virtual identities, virtual consumption and real world consumption. This study formulates a preliminary taxonomy of user motivations for playing Second Life and addresses how these diverse reasons impact both virtual and ‘real world’ consumer behaviors. A total of 209 participants completed a Web-based questionnaire. The independent variable in the study was motivation for using Second Life, and respondents completed measures of frequency of purchasing different products, motivations for using Second Life, and demographic characteristics. Results are consistent with the expectation that not all Second Life users are the same in their motivations or behaviors, despite popular media coverage of the phenomenon.