Biotribology: Friction,wear, and lubrication of natural synovial joints

Studies have been carried out over the past several years to explore possible interconnections between tribology — the study of friction, wear, and lubrication — and arthrology, more specifically, mechanisms of synovial joint lubrication and degeneration. The focus of this paper is on the tribological behaviour of natural and so-called ‘normal’ synovial joints. A separate paper deals with possible connections between tribology and degenerative joint disease (e.g., osteoarthritis). The purpose of this paper is fourfold: (1) to present a summary of salient work on mechanisms of synovial joint lubrication; (2) to review the key findings of our in vitro wear studies made with bovine articular cartilage; (3) to discuss the significance of the cartilage wear studies in relation to existing joint lubrication theories; and (4) to describe a new device being used for studies of cartilage-on-cartilage deformation, friction, wear and damage under in vitro conditions.     

Nanoscale boundary lubrication of diamond‐like carbon coatings with fluorinated compounds

Progress in the technology of magnetic media has brought about a remarkable increase in recording density. The most important factor determining the utility of magnetic disks is durability against head wear, and this durability is controlled by several factors. The present paper discusses the tribology of these media, particularly from the viewpoint of boundary lubrication. In that context there are two characteristic features of this lubrication regime: specific standard lubricants (fluoropolyethers such as Z‐DOL and perfluo‐ropolyethers such as Z‐15) and the newer application of these lubricants in the form of films only a few nanometers thick Advanced phosphazene‐type fluorinated compounds are of most interest at present, so these compounds are discussed in more detail. The emphasis is on X‐1P lubricant used either alone or as an additive for fluoro‐ and perfluoropolyethers deposited on protective diamond‐like carbon coatings.     

Some current trends in tribology in the UK and Europe

A review of some aspects of current tribology activities in the UK and Europe is given. The survey is based largely on open literature publications which have appeared within the last four years, and on papers presented at recent tribology conferences, up to July 1985. Areas of interest which are high-lighted include: technology transfer; friction, lubrication and wear research; tribo-testing; computers in tribology; failure diagnosis; plant condition monitoring; tribology in hostile environments (nuclear, off-shore, space); surface treatments and surface coatings; plastics; ceramics; and bio-engineering.     

Flexible media — recent developments from the tribology point of view

With the increase in the recording density of hard disk systems, the demand on the increase in the data recording capacity of tape drive systems as back-up systems is increasing. One of the advantages of the tape drive systems is high volumetric recording density, which is obtained by high areal recording density and thin tapes. The areal recording density can be increased by introducing high performance tapes, such as metal evaporated tapes, with superior magnetic characteristics and smooth magnetic surface to reduce the spacing loss. However, a smoother surface often produces a higher friction coefficient, which could cause tape damage by rotary heads and unstable tape runnability in the tape drives. Adoption of MR heads to tape drive systems is also effective in increasing the areal recording density. However, the wear allowance of the MR heads (shield type) is much smaller than that of the inductive heads. Thinner tapes show lower mechanical stiffness in general, which could cause damage to tape edges easily during tape transportation. In the second or later generation of tape drive systems, a thinner tape is often introduced. These thinner tapes should also have the interchangeability of the original thickness tape. New materials for a base film, such as PEN (polyethylene naphthalate) or aramid in which the elastic moduli are larger than those of PET, are required for thinner tapes. It was found that these side effects by the increase in the volumetric recording density can be improved by tribology. The tribological improvements from the drive design side is very important, as well as from the tape design side.     

Tribological studies of poly(ether ether ketone) blends

A review of friction and wear studies of poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) blended with other polymers is presented. PEEK is a high performance thermoplastic now commonly employed in many engineering applications, but its tribological properties deteriorate in high temperature environments. One approach to improving the friction and wear properties of PEEK is to blend this plastic with appropriate polymers. In recent years, a number of investigations into the tribology of PEEK blended with poly(ether imide) (PEI), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and liquid crystalline polymers (LCPs) have been reported and these studies are discussed.     

Tribotronics—Towards active tribology

A constant trend towards more compact mechanical systems with higher power densities and increased thermo-mechanical loads emphasises the importance of the development of new design approaches and novel tribological systems. Ignoring this may cause a significant slow down in technological and industrial development. Tribotronics or active tribology based on adaptive performance is thought of as being critical in the implementation of smart machine concepts. Recognition of the importance of tribotronics, or active control of system loss outputs, such as those through friction and wear will have significant beneficial economic consequences as a result of the associated accelerated rate of technological progress. These smart tribotronic systems can be embedded in a great variety of machines and mechanisms. If this integration is made at the design stage, products that are more flexible, efficient and reliable can be produced. The concept of tribotronics is presented and discussed in this paper. Some illustrative examples that show the feasibility of an “active” approach are given. In addition, various possibilities already reported in literature are discussed.     

The tribology of advanced digital recording (ADR) systems

The advanced digital recording system, a linear tape recording system is examined with respect to the tribology involved at the head/tape interface. Using atomic force microscopy (AFM), Auger elcetron spectrocopy (AES) and scanning Auger microscopy (SAM) surface characterisation techniques, several wear mechanisms are isolated: scratching, attributed to the polishing action of the tape asperities; microfracture then pullout of the Al₂O₃–TiC ceramic used as tape bearing surface; and ploughing due to three-body action of ceramic pullouts entrapped on the recessed poles. A ceramic differential wear is found to occur at the expense of the Al₂O₃ component, which therefore forms the ceramic recessed regions. The ceramic pullouts involved in the poles' three-body abrasion, however, appear to consist of TiC particles. A model for the ceramic wear mechanism is proposed. A transferred mixture of possibly magnetic pigments, binder and lubricant from the tape to the head is observed in the form of adhesive deposits. The iron component of this transfer is found in higher concentrations on the pole tips and the prominent part of the ceramic.     

Wear of tribe-elements of video tape recorders

The helical scan magnetic recording equipment, like the video tape recorders (VTR), consist of many tribe-elements. The wear of these tribe-elements is an essential problem affecting the reliability of the equipment. The rotating magnetic head in high-speed rubbing with the magnetic tape needs a self-cleaning effect by mild wear. A simple trial of reducing the head wear often brings partial recession, friction polymer and brown stain. The summary of the current study of head wear is given by dividing it into the head factors, the tape factors, the system factors and the atmosphere factors. The computational analysis of head contour change caused by wear is compared with the experimental results. The outline of the tribology of motor, capstan and tape path in the VTR is introduced.     

轧辊磨损及其预报

在对轧制摩擦特点进行分析的基础上，论述了轧辊磨损形成机理，分析了各种工作辊磨损预报模型。提出了今后工作辊磨研究工作的建议。     

Wear measurement using radionuclide-technique (RNT)

Wear measurement based on the radionuclide-technique (RNT) is a unique way to determine the tribological performance of a system continuously and in real-time. Due to its extremely high resolution and accuracy this method is especially suited to mechanical systems showing low wear rates. When simultaneously to wear, friction is also measured, dynamic processes like running-in can be assessed precisely. This leads to a deeper understanding of the fundamental mechanisms of the wear process. The method, therefore, can be used for applied as well as for detailed basic research. This paper deals with the fundamentals of RNT and its application. Although most of the examples come from combustion engine tribology, the findings can be generalized to other areas of mechanical engineering.     

Wear and friction behavior of alumina ceramics in aqueous solutions with different pH

It is well known that the wear and friction behavior of ceramics can be significantly improved by using them in water or humid air rather then a dry atmosphere. Accordingly, various ceramics have found many water-lubricated applications. In spite of this, the effect of the pH of the aqueous media on the wear and friction behavior has not been investigated in detail. In this study, we have investigated the wear behavior of alumina ceramics in different water-lubricated conditions with a range of pH values from 0.85 to 13. Based on the results of reciprocating sliding tests, we found that the wear can vary by as much as one order of magnitude and the coefficient of friction between 0.2 and 0.6, depending on the conditions. We also observed that significantly different wear surfaces are generated for different pH values, and these surfaces have a diverse effect on the wear and friction behavior. Wear mechanisms were established by employing surface topography analyses and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The chemical and electrochemical effects under the selected tribological conditions are discussed to help explain the observed behavior. Our findings suggest that by varying the pH of a solution we can obtain low-wear and/or high-wear of alumina ceramics to suit the requirements of the process.     

Ekonol/G/MoS_2/PEEK复合材料的磨损机理研究

用模压方法制备了Ekonol/G/MoS2 /PEEK复合材料 ,通过摩擦磨损实验方法对材料的耐磨性能进行了研究 ,并用SEM对磨损表面进行了观察和分析 ,在此基础上探讨了复合材料的磨损机理。结果表明 :与PEEK相比 ,复合材料具有优良的耐磨性能 ;随着Ekonol含量的增加 ,复合材料的磨损机理发生了由粘着磨损向疲劳磨损的转变     

Ionic Liquid Lubricants: Basics and Applications

Interest in the tribological performance of ionic liquids (ILs) has increased significantly since they were first introduced as lubricants in 2001. The primary advantages of ILs over conventional lubricants lie in their better ability to form tribofilms, higher thermal stability, environmental friendliness, and adaptability to various applications. A remarkable reduction in friction and wear has been observed after the addition of ILs in oil- or water-based media and in grease, suggesting that ILs are promising candidate materials as neat lubricants as well as lubricant additives. Despite the relatively common utilization of ILs as lubricating media, their wider use is limited by their high cost and corrosive properties. This article provides a brief introduction to relevant IL structures and properties, focusing on recent applications of the materials in engineering tribology.     

纳米磷酸盐薄膜的表面摩擦磨损性能研究

研究了轴承钢表面的纳米磷酸盐薄膜对轴承钢表面摩擦性能的影响。采用PHI595SAM型俄歇能谱仪对GCr15轴承钢试样表面纳米磷酸盐薄膜进行了分析和厚度测量。通过四球试验机和铁姆肯摩擦磨损试验机对表面覆盖磷酸盐薄膜的试样与普通试样进行了摩擦磨损对比试验。结果表明:表面覆盖20 nm厚磷酸盐薄膜的试样,具有良好的减摩抗磨效果。同时也对其高速轴承润滑系统的影响进行了讨论,发现纳米磷酸盐薄膜可以有效地改善高速轴承的润滑状态,延长轴承的使用寿命。     

Tribocorrosion in implants—assessing high carbon and low carbon Co–Cr–Mo alloys by in situ electrochemical measurements

Tribocorrosion is defined as the chemical–electrochemical–mechanical process leading to degradation of materials in tribological contact immersed in a corrosive environment. Degradation results from the combined action of corrosion and mechanical loading and it is well-known that synergistic effects can accentuate the wear–corrosion rate. While the role of lubrication in reducing wear has been identified, there are still some key unanswered questions in relation to the importance of wear/corrosion interactions. In this study in situ electrochemical measurements have been made to isolate corrosion and corrosion-enhanced wear/tribology damage mechanisms on high carbon CoCrMo and low carbon CoCrMo alloys. Tests are carried out in three different biological solutions: 50% calf bovine serum, Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) and 0.36% NaCl solution at 37 °C with the specific objective being to attempt to isolate the effects of proteins and amino acid species in wear–corrosion. In this paper, a detailed analysis of corrosion/wear interactions is presented, which facilitates discussion of exactly how corrosion and wear processes interact and the role of the lubricating fluid in this respect.     

The Effects of Dopants on the Chemistry and Tribology of Sputter-Deposited MoS2 Films

The fact. that dopants improve the friction and wear properties of sputtered MoS₂ films is well known. However, the role of dopants in the mechanisms governing friction and wear are not well understood. The purpose of this work is to gain a fundamental understanding of their role by co-depositing a number of materials, i.e., Ni, Fe, Au, and. Sb₂O₃, with MoS₂ and evaluating their effects on film chemistry, crystallinity, microstructure, and tribology. Friction and wear measurements were collected, using ball-on-flat and dual-rub shoe tribom-eters. Other physical and chemical properties were obtained using SEM, XPS, XRD) and Raman spectroscopy. Crystalline MoS₂ was seen in all of the films. In Sb₂O₃-doped films, an amorphous phase was also observed. The presence of dopants caused film densification and affected crystallite size. They had little effect on the overall crystallite orientation. In addition, dopants caused a reduction in the mean and. variance of the friction coefficient and an increase in wear life. The correlation between dopants, film properties, and tribology is discussed in detail.     

Investigation of scale effects and directionality dependence on friction and adhesion of human hair using AFM and macroscale friction test apparatus

Macroscale testing of human hair tribological properties has been widely used to aid in the development of better shampoos and conditioners. Recently, literature has focused on using the atomic force microscope (AFM) to study surface roughness, coefficient of friction, adhesive force, and wear (tribological properties) on the nanoscale in order to increase understanding about how shampoos and conditioners interact with the hair cuticle. Since there are both similarities and differences when comparing the tribological trends at both scales, it is thus recognized that scale effects are an important aspect of studying the tribology of hair. However, no microscale tribological data for hair exists in literature. This is unfortunate because many interactions between hair-skin, hair-comb, and hair-hair contact takes place at microasperities ranging from a few mum to hundreds of mum. Thus, to bridge the gap between the macro- and nanoscale data, as well as to gain a full understanding of the mechanisms behind the trends, it is now worthwhile to look at hair tribology on the microscale. Presented in this paper are coefficient of friction and adhesive force data on various scales for virgin and chemically damaged hair, both with and without conditioner treatment. Macroscale coefficient of friction was determined using a traditional friction test apparatus. Microscale and nanoscale tribological characterization was performed with AFM tips of various radii. The nano-, micro-, and macroscale trends are compared and the mechanisms behind the scale effects are discussed. Since the coefficient of friction changes drastically (on any scale) depending on whether the direction of motion is along or against the cuticle scales, the directionality dependence and responsible mechanisms are discussed.     

有色金属挤压摩擦学特性的研究

本文对有色金属对挤压过程的摩擦，磨损，润滑进行了研究，利用比拟试验研究了在蓖麻油，蓖麻油＋硬脂酸锌，蓖麻油＋硬脂酸钙三种润滑课题上，有色金属铜（H62），铝（L2）试样在9CrSi模具中挤压的摩擦磨损特性，探讨了其摩擦磨损机理，结果表明：蓖麻油中加入硬脂酸锌，硬脂酸钙添加剂，能提高抗磨性能的承载能力，适合应用在挤压生产中。     

磨损自补偿的载荷效应研究

通过载荷对磨损自补偿添加剂的性能的影响研究,发现在磨损自补偿添加剂ＳＷ４的作用下,钢－铜摩擦副的磨损量与载荷无关;而且载荷越大,钢－铜摩擦副的磨损自补偿效应越显著,这些结果不同于传统的摩擦学理论。因此。磨损自补偿添加剂ＳＷ４特别适合于重载工况下运行的钢－铜摩擦副,如轧钢厂压下系统的丝杆－螺母副,为提高这类重载钢－铜摩擦副的寿命和可靠性提供了一条有效途径。     

试论海洋摩擦学的内涵、研究范畴及其研究进展

世界正在进入海洋大发展时代,各种海洋装备蓬勃发展,这些海洋装备在苛刻海洋环境中的摩擦学问题对摩擦学科技工作者提出新的挑战。分析海洋环境及其介质特性,认为复杂的海洋环境使得海洋开发和营运于海洋环境的装备面临各种因素的耦合作用;阐述海洋摩擦学的内涵及其研究范畴,认为海洋摩擦学的主要研究对象是各种海洋开发和营运于海洋环境的装备,研究重点是腐蚀与摩擦等多学科交互作用机理、海洋环境动态变化下的长效可靠性、海洋生物与海洋装备的运动与密封件的侵蚀机理以及深海工程的摩擦学问题等。对船舰、海洋结构物、水下航行器/水下空间站、海洋可再生能源开发利用中的各种摩擦学问题及其研究进展进行综述分析,提出将海洋摩擦学作为一个独立的具有自身体系的新兴摩擦学研究领域。