Springback prediction in sheet metal forming of high strength steels

Both increased weight reduction and improved passive safety have been simultaneously required for components of new vehicle generation. Thus, advanced high strength Dual Phase (DP) steels have been progressively used when making automotive parts. During each sheet metal forming process the high strength steels exhibit distinct springback effect, which is governed by strain recovery of material after load removal. The springback is variably sensitive to materials and process parameters. Considering springback occurred in a formed part is significant for designing tools and dies. In this work, both experiments and Finite Element Analyses (FEA) of a U-shape forming test were performed and compared for investigating the springback effect. Two DP steels (JSC590R and JSC780Y) with different strengths and a mild steel (JSC270C) were taken into account. The planar anisotropic material model according to Hill’s 1948, Barlat’s yield 2000, and Yoshida–Uemori kinematic hardening model were applied in the simulations. Various mechanical testing as hydraulic bulge test, disk compression test, and in particular cyclic test under tension and compression load were carried out in order to determine required materials parameters of the models. Obviously, steel with higher yield and tensile strength definitely showed an increasing in magnitude of both springback and curling. All presented material models restricted ability to predict springback effect of the examined steels, although the Yoshida–Uemori criterion provided more accurate results than other ones. The model is therefore preferred for describing the strain recovery mechanism of high strength steels, while parameter determination plays a decisive role. The cyclic test was verified to successfully describe the kinematic behaviour of material.     

FATIGUE DESIGN OF SPOT-WELDED AUSTENITIC AND DUPLEX STAINLESS SHEET STEELS

The fatigue strength of spot-welded stainless sheet steels has been investigated. The main part of the fatigue tests was performed on a cold rolled austenitic stainless sheet steel (AISI304) in air at ambient temperature. For comparison, a duplex stainless steel (SAF2304) of similar yield strength as AISI304 was also incorporated into the test programme. Since the fatigue strength of spot-welded joints depends on the mode of loading, both shear-loaded and peel-loaded joints were tested. The fatigue strength of the spot-welded stainless steels was found to decrease with decreasing sheet thickness. Furthermore, the fatigue strength for peel-loaded joints is lower than that of shear-loaded joint for sheets of equal thickness.
The local loading conditions at the weld edge have been analysed in terms of finite element calculations and fracture mechanics. A design parameter derived from a fracture mechanics analysis was defined for spot-welded stainless sheet steels. It was shown to predict the fatigue life of the present steels and joint configurations in a satisfactory way.     

On the formability of sheet steels

Formability of sheet steel in stamping operation primarily depends on strain hardening exponent (n), average plastic strain ratio ( ) and the maximum strain the material can undergo before the onset of localized necking. The formability parameters (n and ) and the forming limit diagrams have been evaluated for a variety of sheet steel products, extensively used for press forming of components of diverse shapes e.g. extra deep drawing quality auto-body sheets, high strength cold rolled sheets, LPG steel for gas cylinders, austenitic and ferritic stainless steels, etc. The effect of sulphide shape control on formability of hot rolled HSLA steel has also been studied. Additionally, the press performance of auto-body sheets and austenitic stainless steels have been monitored and evaluated at customer’s end for complete information on the formability.     

不锈钢晶间腐蚀弯曲评价方法的影响因素

用嵌含有GTN延性损伤模型的ABAQUS有限元法,模拟研究了不锈钢晶间腐蚀弯曲评价方法中材料力学性能、弯曲角度和压头直径对弯曲试样塑性应变分布、延性损伤和裂纹起裂的影响规律,分析了其对晶间腐蚀弯曲评价结果的影响。结果表明：随着试样弯曲角度的增大和弯曲压头直径的减小,试样拉伸面的塑性应变增加,试样越容易产生弯曲开裂;在晶间腐蚀弯曲评价标准中,当固定弯曲角度和压头直径时,对于塑性、韧性和抗断裂综合力学性能较低的不锈钢材料,在弯曲过程中材料本身会发生开裂;因此,需要考虑材料力学性能对晶间腐蚀弯曲评价结果的影响;对于该研究中的典型的奥氏体不锈钢材料,当其弯曲断裂应变低于0．51左右时,在弯曲过程中材料本身会发生开裂,不宜用弯曲方法来评价其晶间腐蚀敏感性。     

Einfluss von Temperatur und Vorverformung auf das plastische Werkstoffverhalten von modernen Karosseriestählen

Influence of temperature and prestraining on the plastic material behaviour of modern sheet steels for autobody applications Within the scope of a common research project of the automotive and steel industry, characteristic values describing the plastical behaviour of 20 sheet steels have been determined. In detail, quasistatic tensile tests at the testing temperatures ‐40 °C, 23 °C and 100 °C were carried out to obtain flow curves for the as delivered materials as well as for steels after a defined prestraining or heat treatment. Additionally, sheet metal testing led to forming limit diagrams and limiting drawing ratios including the working ranges for deep drawing. The results of the tensile tests showed significant differences between steel groups with regard to their strain hardening behaviour, which can be described by the ratio of yield and tensile strength R_p0,2/R_m or the Θ_IV‐value, and their temperature sensitivity. Within one steel group, consisting of steels with similar strain hardening behaviour, it might be possible to determine flow curves of one steel in a defined condition in order to calculate the flow curves of other steels with different strength. An advantage would be a lesser number of experimental tests which have to be performed in order to supply reliable input data for numerical material and component modelling.     

Ermittlung von Berechnungskennwerten an Karosseriewerkstoffen – Bericht über ein Gemeinschaftsprojekt der Stahl‐ und Automobilindustrie

Determination of input data for numerical design of sheet steels – Report on a common research project of the steel and automotive industry Within the scope of a common research project of the steel and automotive industry, 20 sheet steels have been investigated to obtain input data for FE‐analysis. In detail, elastic, plastic and fatique characteristical values were determined by several testing institutes for a period of 3 years. The investigated sheet steels differ with regard to the microstructure and the steel concept. Beside several ferritic steels, multiphase steels like dual phase‐, complex phase‐ and TRIP steels as well as 2 austenitic stainless steels were characterised. The starting materials and selected steels with a defined predeformation and heat treatment were investigated. Within this project, the partners developed a testing and documentation precept in which the ways and means were fixed to reach the defined steel condition and to enable a standardised testing and data output for the material database, realised by the automotive industry. Before the actual elastic, plastic and fatique testing, a reception test for all steels was carried out to characterise the materials with regard to the microstructure, surface condition, chemical composition and mechanical properties, obtained in the quasistatic tensile test. The results of the different testing institutes (elastic, plastic and fatique) will be presented in separate publications in detail. As a result of this project it became obvious that the investigated steels can be divided into steel groups which show a similar strain hardening behaviour. Thus, a prediction of mechanical values and flow curves for cognate steels within one steel group seems to be possible. This subject will be the focus of further investigations within the scope of a new project started on January 1^st, 2003.     

汽车覆盖件冲压成形灰色关联选材法研究

汽车覆盖件形状结构复杂,冲压时经常多发性地产生不同的成形缺陷,为了解决冲压选材问题,分析了以往选材研究的技术思想,通过试验检测冲压板料的性能数据,揭示当前冲压选材中仍然存在的问题,并使用灰色系统理论表征了冲压成形性能的灰色系统性质,提出应用灰色关联分析对覆盖件进行冲压选材的新方法,且针对行李箱盖内板实例性地说明使用这种方法进行冲压选材的决策过程.研究表明,采用本文方法可以解决传统冲压选材中离散性评判冲压板料各种性能指标的问题.     

一种韧性断裂损伤力学建模方法及其应用

基于连续损伤力学理论,综合考虑变形历史（温度、应变速率）对损伤的累积演化和临界损伤值的影响,提出了一种新的韧性断裂预测方法。建立了相应的韧性断裂准则,准确地预测了钛合金的热锻成形、镁合金的温热冲压成形和不锈钢板的液压成形过程中的破裂行为,表明该方法可以很好地用于存在变形历史的体积成形和板成形的成形极限预测。     

树脂复合减振钢板U型弯曲回弹实验与数值模拟研究

通过带法兰边的U型弯曲成形实验研究,考察了树脂复合减振钢板在不同压边力下的回弹特性.实验结果表明:压边力对树脂复合减振钢板回弹特性影响显著.较大的压边力有利于减小回弹缺陷.其次,考虑树脂层的粘弹性特性,采用非线性粘弹性模型来描述树脂层的力学变形行为,并采用Cohesive单元和固体壳单元分别对树脂层和表层钢板进行离散,进行了树脂复合减振钢板在不同压边力下的U型弯曲有限元数值模拟研究.和实验结果比较表明,所建立的有限元模型能够较好的模拟U型弯曲成形过程.最后,基于建立的有限元模型,考查了成形速度,树脂层厚度和表层钢板初始屈服应力对回弹的影响.参数分析结果表明:这三个参数对回弹角的影响显著.该研究对树脂复合减振钢板冲压工艺设计具有一定的指导意义.     

The modified temperature term on Johnson Cook model for AZ31 magnesium alloy

The quasi‐state and dynamic mechanism of AZ31 magnesium alloy at a strain rates range of 0.001 s^‐1–2500 s^‐1 under a temperature range of 20 °C–250 °C were researched by compression tests using the electronic universal testing machine and split Hopkinson pressure bar system. The true stress‐strain curves at different strain rates and evaluated temperatures were obtained. The result shows that the thermal soften effect of AZ31 magnesium alloy is significant. By modifying the temperature term of the original Johnson Cook model of AZ31 magnesium alloy, a modified Johnson Cook model of AZ31 magnesium alloy has been proposed to reveal thermal soften effect on the deformation behavior of AZ31 magnesium alloy more precisely. With the modified Johnson Cook model and fracture model, the finite element method simulation of AZ31 magnesium alloy hat shaped specimen under impacting was conducted. The numerical simulation result is consistent with the experimental result, which indicates that the modified Johnson Cook model and fracture model are greatly valid to predict the deformation and fracture behavior of the AZ31 magnesium alloy hat shaped specimen under impacting.     

高精度17-4PH不锈钢隔碗拉深液压胀形复合成形工艺参数优化

目的 针对17-4PH不锈钢冷成形回弹大、贴模性差等问题,研究17-4PH不锈钢隔碗零件的拉深成形和液压胀形规律,确定隔碗零件拉深液压胀形复合成形的最佳工艺及参数.方法 利用有限元方法确定并优化了拉深预成形和液压胀形中的工艺参数.基于优化后的结果设计并制造了相关的模具,最终通过试验验证了有限元方法的有效性.结果 结合数值模拟和试验的方法,提出了零件先拉深预成形、后液压胀形的多步成形方案,逐步优化了成形工艺参数,最终成形出了满足尺寸和精度要求的高精度隔碗零件.结论 通过数值模拟获得了最佳的坯料直径及多步成形中的关键工艺参数,基于数值模拟优化为主和试验验证为辅的设计制造理念,解决了17-4PH不锈钢冷成形回弹大和贴模性差的问题.     

汽车用烘烤硬化板 BH340 及深冲板 St 15 成形性能分析

进行了汽车用烘烤硬化钢板 BH340 及深冲钢板 St15 的力学性能、时效特性和烘烤硬化性能实验,并利用有限元方法模拟了 2 种钢板的成形极限和破裂点应变路径。 分析后指出, BH340 烘烤硬化效应较显著,时效效应不明显,对于汽车外覆盖件成形、涂漆烘烤工艺具有较好的适应性; St15 经形变强化后仍具有良好的塑性,适用于多道次成形工艺。 另外,2 种钢板均具有较为明显的面内异向性。     

Strength and ductility of Weldox 460 E steel at high strain rates, elevated temperatures and various stress triaxialities

Strength and ductility data at high strain rates for Weldox 460 E steel was obtained from tensile tests with axisymmetric specimens. The tests were performed in a Split Hopkinson Tension Bar and the initial temperature was varied between 100 and 500 °C. The combined effect of high strain rate, elevated temperature and stress triaxiality on the behaviour was studied by testing both smooth and pre-notched specimens. It was found that the influence of temperature on the stress-strain behaviour differs at high strain rates compared with quasi-static loading conditions. The true fracture strain depends considerably on the stress triaxiality, which is governed by the notch geometry, while the influence of strain rate and temperature is less clear. Numerical simulations with the explicit finite element code LS-DYNA were performed using a model of elasto-viscoplasticity and ductile damage, which is based on the constitutive relation and fracture criterion of Johnson and Cook. The numerical simulations compare reasonably well with the experiments with respect to strength and ductility for both smooth and notched specimens at elevated temperatures.     

Fatigue properties of stainless sheet steels in air at room temperature

Abstract

The number of stainless sheet steel applications involving cyclic loading in non-corrosive and mild corrosive environments is increasing. In the present work, the fatigue properties of two austenitic (AISI 301 and AISI 304) and two duplex (Avesta 2205 and SAF 2304) stainless steels have been studied using fully reversed strain controlled testing of smooth specimens in air and at room temperature. Since prestraining is a common operation for increasing the proof stress of austenitic grades, these grades were also tested in the prestrained condition. The fatigue strength has been evaluated as a function of total strain amplitude, plastic strain amplitude, stress amplitude, and using the Neuber parameter.

MST/3155     

Structure and properties of ion-nitrided stainless steels

The structure and properties of ion-nitrided layers on several stainless steels, 410 martensitic stainless steel, 430 ferritic stainless steel and 321 austenitic stainless steel, has been studied under varying process conditions with microhardness-depth correlations, optical microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The process variables studied include time (2 to 10 h) and temperature (400 to 600° C). The highest case depth values and hardness levels were observed in martensitic stainless steels. The lowest case depths were observed in austenitic stainless steel. In general, the behaviour of matensitic and ferritic stainless steels were similar. All three steels showed increasing case depths and decreasing surface hardnesses with increasing ion-nitriding temperatures and times. Nitriding depth was found to be parabolic with ion nitriding time in all three steels at all ion-nitriding temperatures investigated, the nitriding reaction being faster in martensitic stainless steel than the others. Electron microscopy showed that almost no structural difference arises in the core of ferritic and austenitic stainless steels whereas recrystallization of the martensitic structure was observed in the core of martensitic steel following ion nitriding. Electron microscopy results also showed that ion nitriding produces platelets or disc-shaped precipitates on {001} matrix planes, coherent with the matrix. These platelets showed a striated morphology which is thought to be the result of the elastic strain in the matrix.     

Numerical simulations of impact behaviour of thin steel plates subjected to cylindrical,conical and hemispherical non-deformable projectiles

In this paper, a numerical study of normal perforation of thin steel plates impacted by different projectile shapes is reported. The numerical simulations of this problem have been performed using a finite element code, ABAQUS-Explicit with a fixed and an adaptive mesh for the plate. To define the thermoviscoplastic behaviour of the material constituting the plate, the Johnson–Cook model has been used. This homogeneous behaviour has been coupled with the Johnson–Cook fracture criterion to predict completely the perforation process. Three kinds of projectile shape (blunt, conical and hemispherical) have been simulated with a large range of impact velocities from 190 to 600 m/s. The analysis considers the influence of adiabatic shear bands, plastic work and the gradient of temperature generated in the plate. The numerical results predict correctly the behaviour projectile-plate in agreement with experimental data published by other authors.     

Identification of plasticity constants from orthogonal cutting and inverse analysis

The aim of this work is that from experimental determined cutting process parameters be able to predict the plasticity input constants to Finite Element Method (FEM) models. In the present study the Johnson–Cook constitutive model constants are determined on the basis of cutting process parameters in orthogonal cutting and by use of inverse analysis. Previously established links between Johnson–Cook constitutive model constants and cutting process parameters in the cutting process such as primary cutting force and chip compression ratio is used serve as a starting point in the inverse analysis. As a reference material AISI 4140 has been chosen in this study, which is a tempered steel. The Johnson–Cook constitutive model constants in the reference material are being changed within an interval of ±30%. The inverse analysis is performed using a Kalman filter. The material model for the reference material is validated on the basis of the experimental results in previous work. The model showed to predict the cutting process parameters with a high level of accuracy. The predicted Johnson–Cook constitutive model constants in the present study achieve an error between simulated- and experimental cutting process parameters of maximum 2%. The method described in this study is not limited to identify Johnson–Cook constitutive model constants, but the method can also be used for other constitutive models. The same applies to the process itself and the selected cutting process parameters, but orthogonal cutting has been used to illustrate and validate this method.     

Formability prediction of high-strength steel sheet using experimental,analytical and theoretical analysis based on strain and stress forming limit curves and its application to automotive forming parts

In this work, the high-strength steel (HSS) sheet dual-phase 440 (DP440) were conducted to establish the forming limit curve (FLC) and analytical forming limit stress curve (FLSC) obtained from experimental forming limit curve. First, the Nakajima stretch forming examination was carried out to obtain forming limit curve of investigated sheet. Afterwards, the theoretical Marciniak–Kuczinsky (M–K) model was developed and calculated to evaluate localized necking limits both in strain and stress spaces combination with anisotropic yield criteria. Then, the analytical forming limit stress curves were plastically calculated by using experimental forming limit curve data combination with Swift hardening model and anisotropic yield criteria namely, Hill’48 and Yld2000-2d for representing anisotropic plastic deformation behavior on examined steel sheet. Finally, automotive stamping parts were performed in order to verify an applicability of all developed curves. It was observed that the analytical forming limit stress curves could more precisely predict the formability of automotive parts better than the forming limit curve based on strain. Particularly, the one based on Yld2000-2d predict better than the one based on Hill’48. Simultaneously, the experimental forming limit curve and analytical forming limit stress curve were also evaluated comparing with the theoretical calculated forming limit curve and forming limit stress curve using the Marciniak–Kuczinsky model. It should be noted again that the experimental forming limit curve and analytical forming limit stress curve are the best one. Therefore, the Yld2000-2d yield function better represented the anisotropic behavior of the high-strength steel sheet dual-phase 440 than Hill′ 48 yield function, and can suitable be used for the analysis prediction and design of bumper automotive parts under forming processes.     

Sintered 434L ferritic stainless steels

Stainless steel powder metallurgical parts are increasingly used in automotive, aircraft, business machines, chemical, marine, tools and hardware industries. Although some results on sintered austenitic stainless steels have been reported, there is no information on a relatively cheaper ferritic stainless steel series of alloys. In the present paper, the properties of 434L ferritic stainless steel have been comprehensively evaluated and their nature discussed.