12-GHz fade durations and intervals in the tropics

Direct-to-home very small aperture terminals systems operating at frequencies above 10 GHz in tropical climates are subjected to many fade occurrences due to heavy rain. In addition to annual and worst month cumulative rainfall rate and rain fade exceedances, statistics of seasonal and diurnal variations, together with average event length and separation, are needed to give the detailed insights for system design. This paper presents seasonal fade duration statistics and fade interval characteristics for a wet, tropical location in Lae, Papua New Guinea (PNG), measured over four years using satellite beacon and collocated radiometer receivers.     

Diurnal variations in rain attenuation on Ku band earth–space paths

This paper presents analytical results of the diurnal variations in Ku band rain attenuation along earth–space paths at four locations in Southeast Asia and proposes a new model that can predict rain fade in a short period of every 2 h daily. Data from four radiometers and four rain gauges over a 3 year period were analysed to obtain the characteristics of diurnal variations in rain attenuation and rainfall as well as cumulative attenuation distributions in every 2 h interval. The results of this analysis are applied to develop an intensive prediction model using the knowledge of rainfall and attenuation statistics. This model is tested with the measured data and is found to be useful for the design of a more efficient Ku band satellite system especially between 99 per cent and 99·9 per cent link availability in an area of heavy rainfall. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Attenuation of Centimetre, Millimetre and Sub-Millimetre Waves Due to Rain Over Tropical Indian Stations

The results on attenuation of the radio wave due to rain at frequencies lying in the centimetre, millimetre and submillimetre wave bands for different rain rates over three Indian tropical stations are presented in this paper. The study is possible due to the availability of the rainfall rates measured by rapid response rain gauges and rain height over these stations. The results on attenuation were deduced by taking both 0° C isotherm height and effective height. The Stutzman and Dishman model with γ -value of 0.033 which is found suitable for the estimation of rain attenuation over the Indian stations has been critically examined in comparison with the attenuations deduced from CCIR (presently known as ITU-R) method.     

降雨率的最坏月分区转换模式研究

最坏月分布特性是无线电系统设计和研制过程中需要考虑的重要指标,大多数无线电气象数据和传播数据只能提供年平均分布概率,这就要求提供最坏月分布和年平均分布之间的转换模式. 本文首先给出了包含累积分布和互补累积分布完整的最坏月概念. 然后分析了对流层散射传输损耗、降雨率和雨衰减、地面视距链路多径衰落等多种电波环境和传播特性的年平均和最坏月概率转换关系,并通过对比分析给出了最优的模型参数,其对应的均方根误差最小,其中对流层散射和雨衰减的均方根误差小于10%,同时论证了雨衰减的转换关系可以由降雨率的转换关系得到. 本文的研究将有力支撑无线电系统的最坏月设计.     

Rain rate analysis and total rain accumulation in the North of Malayan Peninsula

Using the 1-min data for 13 years (1993–2005) of rainfall measurements in Penang in the northwestern part of the Malayan Peninsula, we estimate rain occurrence to be ~12% of the year. At the same location during 0.01% of a year, rainfall exceeds 126 mm/h. The 13-year average 1-min rainfall data are analyzed to study the diurnal, monthly, and annual variation of total rain accumulations. The Southern Oscillation values were low in 1993, 1995, and 1998 and the percentage exceedance of rain rates during the La Niña years were higher than El Niño years.     

A systematic comparison of rain attenuation prediction methods for terrestrial paths

The available rain attenuation prediction methods have been tested and compared, and the sensitivity to various input parameters regarding both the rain structure and the rainfall intensity measuring and processing techniques has been examined, on the basis of rain data collected in the northern and central parts of Italy. Starting from the same data, some considerations about the relationship between worst month/yearly cumulative rain attenuation distributions, and the diurnal influence on them are also given.     

On the rain attenuation dynamics: spatial‐temporal analysis of rainfall rate and fade duration statistics

Knowledge about the dynamic characteristics of rain attenuation is of utmost importance for many applications in terrestrial and satellite communication systems operating at frequencies above 10 GHz. Long‐term rain rate statistics and rain rate duration statistics are usually available from meteorological data. In this paper, a spatial–temporal analysis is employed in order to evaluate the rain attenuation power spectrum of a terrestrial/satellite path. The predicted power spectrum is compared with experimental data. Based on the spectral analysis of rainfall rate a method for converting rain rate duration statistics to link fade duration statistics is also proposed. Fade duration statistics are presented for terrestrial and satellite links and compared with available experimental data. The agreement between the predicted results and the experimental data has been found to be quite encouraging. Finally, numerical results are presented for various climatic zones, elevation angles and frequencies. Some very useful conclusions concerning the dynamic properties of rain attenuation for a microwave path are deduced. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Radiometric Measurements of Rain Attenuation at 22.2 and 31.4 GHz Over Calcutta

Measurements of rain attenuation over Calcutta have been made using radiometers operating at frequencies of 22.235 and 31.4 GHz. The results have been correlated with observations of rainfall rates made with a fast-response rain gauge. The distributions of peak rain rates over Calcutta for two different years and the cumulative occurrences of rainfall rates and attenuations at the two frequencies are presented.     

12 GHz diurnal fade variations in the tropics

In satellite transmission at frequencies above 10 GHz, signal fading, and hence outage, is mainly attributed to rain. Annual and worst month cumulative statistics may not provide sufficient information to design services adequately in the tropics. Statistics of seasonal and diurnal fade variations will give the detailed insights required for direct-to-home/very small aperture terminals (DTH/VSAT) system designs in tropical climates subjected to heavy rain. Diurnal fading statistics for a wet, tropical location in Lae, Papua New Guinea, are presented     

15～23 GHz微波链路雨衰的敏感参量分析

为了提高微波链路雨衰特征的描述精度,拓展微波链路信号的可用参数,该文利用部署于江苏江阴地区的15 GHz, 18 GHz和23 GHz微波链路和雨量计开展同步对比观测,拟合得到3种频段的微波链路雨衰关系。提取并分析了接收信号电平的平均值、中位数、25%分位数、75%分位数、标准差、极大值和极小值等13个特征量与晴雨时刻、降雨强度之间的关系,得出结论：微波链路的信号变化和降雨强度的变化存在明显的负相关关系。实际拟合的雨衰关系与ITU-R的经验雨衰关系具有较好的一致性,但是在不同频段上均有差异;所有13个参量在有雨时刻和无雨时刻均存在一定概率的重叠,这是造成晴雨区分困难的主要原因;频率越高,信号变化受降雨的影响越显著,越有利于微波链路反演降雨。所得出的结论为提高微波链路测雨方法中的晴雨区分、参考值确定以及雨强反演的精度提供重要依据。     

Multipath effects due to rain at 30-50 GHz frequency communicationlinks

This study makes predictions about signal degradation along terrestrial radio links, operated at wide bandwidth and 30-50-GHz frequencies, caused by inhomogeneities in fairly severe rain storms. While the line-of-sight path may experience moderate to severe attenuation, the real problem at hand is to estimate the effect of multipath via scatterings from rain drops on side paths. These longer-path contributions can cause pulse distortions and related high-bandwidth effects which are deleterious to the information content, even upon successful reception of attenuated signals. The results show that significant degradation of high-bandwidth signals accompanying attenuations of more than ~40 dB are possible under intermittent rainfall conditions     

Rain attenuation measurements for short-range millimetre-wave radio link

The high potential of millimetre-wave communication systems has generated the need to carry out many studies in view of rain and other climatic effects on radio propagation at these frequencies. A rain attenuation measurement study at 35 GHz frequency was undertaken in tropical regions of India, in order to observe and investigate the attenuation caused by rains in short-range communications. The rainfall statistics, and attenuation caused by rains, are presented and discussed, and an empirical model derived from these measurements is suggested.     

Experimental assessment of slant‐path rain attenuation variability in the Ka‐band

This study is based on the results of a slant‐path Ka‐band propagation experiment carried out in Madrid, Spain, regarding rain attenuation, which is the main propagation impairment in this frequency band. The experimental and statistical results correspond to seven complete years of measurements, a period large enough to accomplish a comprehensive analysis in order to characterize the variability of rain rate and attenuation. It is shown that year‐to‐year variability is significant in temperate climates as Madrid's. The aforementioned significance is also apparent with regards to seasonal, monthly, worst‐month and hourly variability concerning rain attenuation, which are also discussed and related when possible to the variability of the rain phenomena, either represented by the total amounts of rainfall in the different periods or by rain rate statistics. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tropospheric scintillation in the 14/11-GHz bands on Earth-spacepaths with low elevation angles

Radio waves with frequencies above 10 GHz at low-elevation-angle paths are significantly affected not only by rain but also by atmospheric irregularities in the troposphere. The tropospheric scintillation due to irregularities of the refractive index in the troposphere is investigated using 14/11-GHz low-elevation measurements made during 1983 at Yamaguchi, Japan. The diurnal and seasonal variations, frequency dependence derived from a comparison of the 11- and 14-GHz signals, and elevation-angle dependence of the scintillation data are presented. A comparison between the propagation data and ground-level meteorological measurements indicated a high correlation between the scintillation characteristics and the water vapor contribution to the radio refractive index inferred from local humidity and temperature data. This suggests a method for predicting the severity of scintillation fading using local measurements of meteorological parameters     

Cloud Morphology Over Three Indian Tropical Stations for Earth Space Communication

Microwave and millimeter wave frequency bands are in demand for requirement of larger bandwidth for various applications of radio systems. In future in India too, microwave and millimeter wave frequencies will be in use very extensively for radio communication purposes and remote sensing applications. But, the attenuation due to cloud as well as thermal noise associated with could in millimeter wave and microwave frequency bands are of great concern to system engineers and radio researchers. Both cloud attenuation and cloud noise temperature lead to degradation in the performance of microwave communication and radar propagation. The effects of rain on radio wave are more than cloud but the occurrence of cloud is more than rain. In some parts of India cloud occurs for weeks together. The cloud morphology particularly in relation to radio wave propagation over different geographical region of India is therefore very essential and important. In view of this, systematic studies on cloud occurrence morphology over different geographical locations in India have been undertaken. In recent past some results on cloud occurrences over different stations in India have been reported. In this paper, cloud characteristics and cloud attenuation over three more stations are presented. Based on low level cloud coverage observations, cloud occurrences frequency over Mumbai (19.07°N, 72.50°E), Nagpur (21.06°N, 79.03°E) and Ahmadabad (23.04°N, 72.38°E) situated in Indian tropical west coast, central plain and semi arid region of western India in different months during daytime and nighttime has been deduced. The low-level cloud over Mumbai, Nagpur and Ahamedabad has been found to occur for many days and nights and particularly in the months of June, July, August and September. The attenuation of radio wave due to clouds at various frequencies ～10, 18, 32, 44 and 70 GHz over the aforesaid three stations also been deduced.     

Microwave Signal Attenuation Over Terrestrial Link at 26?GHz in Malaysia

The effect of rain on the microwave systems is more critical especially for countries located in tropical and equatorial region that experience high rainfall rate throughout the year. In order to predict a reliable and an accurate rain prediction model, it is required to determine the one-minute integration time of rainfall rate together with direct measurement of rain attenuation. In order to counter the current trend of employing higher frequencies especially in tropical and equatorial regions, there is an urgent need to carry out studies related to the effect of rain in order to get a better rain attenuation prediction model. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of rain on terrestrial microwave system operating at 26?GHz in Malaysia. The rain intensity with one minute integration time is measured at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia-Skudai (UTM-Skudai) and 99 rain gauges located throughout the Peninsular Malaysia. This study explains the detailed experimental set up and analyses of both rain rate and rain attenuation measurements. The analysis on large-scale study area includes the comparisons between the measured rainfall data and the Drainage and Irrigation Department (DID) rainfall data and also with the Malaysia Meteorological Services (MMS) rainfall data. This study has successfully proposed a new rain rate and rain attenuation prediction model and the obtained results show satisfactory performance and good agreement.     

我国典型地区动态降雨衰减时间序列仿真研究

基于法国航空航天和国立太空科学研究中心(ONERA-CNES)给出的降雨衰减时间序列合成方法,结合典型的北京和海南地区的气象测量的降雨衰减数据,模拟了北京、海南地区Ka(30/20 GHz)波段的降雨衰减时间序列,应用快速傅里叶变换(FFT)和Kaiser窗函数对其功率谱进行了估计,且与实验结果进行了比较,一致性很好;并应用模拟产生的雨衰减序列进行了年降雨时间概率的统计分析,结果与气象实验的统计结果及国际电信联盟无线电通信研究组(ITU-R)的预测结果有较好的一致性,表明该方法可用于我国典型地区的降雨衰减动态特性仿真和分析,对Ka及以上频段的通信和雷达探测的动态降雨衰落削减技术的发展与应用奠定了基础。     

Measurements of rainfall attenuation at 8 and 15 GHz

Measurements of attenuation at frequencies of 8 and 15 GHz, and their correlation with rainfall rate, along a 15.78 km path near Ottawa, are described. Empirical expressions which relate the observed attenuation to the measured rainfall rate are derived and compared with similar expressions obtained on the basis of earlier theoretical studies of the problem. It is concluded that while the theoretical predictions of attenuation in rain are reasonably satisfactory, at least for rains observed at Ottawa, there is a definite tendency for observed attenuations at low rainfall rates to be somewhat higher than the expected values. The cumulative distribution of rainfall attenuation over a six-month period is compared with the attenuation predicted on the basis of average rainfall data obtained during the last five years. Although the agreement between observation and prediction, using the theoretical relation between rainfall rate and attenuation, is good for path attenuations greater than 2 dB, it can be greatly improved if the empirical expression relating rainfall rate to attenuation is used.     

Rain rate statistics and fade distributions at 20 and 30 GHzderived from a network of rain gauges in the mid-Atlantic coast over afive year period

The authors examine five years of rain rate and modeled slant path attenuation distributions at 20 and 30 GHz derived from a network of ten tipping bucket rain gauges located on the mid-Atlantic coast of the US in the vicinity of Wallops Island, VA. Distributions are derived from the variable integration time data from 1-min averages or rain rate time series. It is demonstrated that for realistic fade margins at 20 GHz and above, the variable integration time results are adequate to estimate slant path attenuations using models which require 1-min averages. An accurate empirical formula is developed to convert the variable integration time rain rates to 1-min averages. Rain rate and fade distributions corresponding to the overall network average, yearly network average, and site distributions averaged over the five-year period are derived. Significant differences in the distributions are noted for the year-to-year (temporal variability) and the worst year site-to-site (spatial variability) cases     

Affaiblissements dus a la pluie. Résultats expérimentaux,calculs et prévisions

The author discusses the problem of the measurement of rainfall rates and provides various sources of error, laying stress on the shape of raingauges and wind effect. Referring to results obtained on a number of experimental radio relay systems in operation in France at frequencies higher than 10 GHz, he slightly modifies a raininduced attenuation calculating method based on the existence of rain cells and looks into the long term accuracy of those calculations. Climatologic results show the limits of achievable accuracy, with application to radio relay systems and slanting Earth-to-Satellite propagation.