Bridging psychology and biology with animal research.

Comments on the article by S. M. Kosslyn et al (see record 2002-12932-001), which advocated combining group-based research and individual differences research to illuminate the links between psychology and biology. The authors agree that the study of individual differences is vital for uncovering processes that have hitherto remained obscured by relying too heavily on group-level approaches, and commend their multilevel, multidisciplinary approach to this important topic. However, they believe that Kosslyn et al should have given more attention to one of the most promising avenues for pursuing their multilevel approach--comparative research. The authors suggest that, although Kosslyn et al did refer to animal studies, they did not sufficiently emphasize the potential contribution of animal research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some history of a methodological rediscovery.

Comments on the article by S. M. Kosslyn et al (see record 2002-12932-001). The article extended to biopsychological research an important principle the authors traced to B. J. Underwood (1975): Systematic study of individual differences in a relationship between two or more dependent and independent variables can contribute greatly to the extension of psychological theory. R. R. Holt calls attention to several earlier discoveries of the same point. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in beliefs about groups.

The current research examined individual differences in peoples' positive versus negative beliefs about groups. Three studies were conducted to develop and validate a 16-item Beliefs About Groups (BAG) scale. Factor analyses in Studies 1 and 2 identified and replicated a 4-factor solution, with factors reflecting preferences for group versus individual work, positive group performance beliefs, negative group performance beliefs, and beliefs that others will work hard on group tasks. Study 2 also provided evidence for convergent and divergent validity, and explored relationships between the Big Five personality dimensions and group beliefs. Study 3 provided evidence for test–retest reliability. Across these 3 studies, the BAG scale had total score alphas ranging from .83 to .88. Implications of beliefs about groups for member motivation and group performance, as well as for future research and practice, are highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quantity estimations by groups and individuals: Effects of known domain boundaries.

The authors selected 8 ordered quantities from smallest (1st) to largest (8th) from each of 36 domains, such as population of countries and production of commodities. Given the 1st and 8th (broad domain boundaries), 2nd and 7th (medium boundaries), 3rd and 6th (narrow boundaries), 2nd and 3rd, 6th and 7th, or none of the quantities, participants estimated the 4th and 5th quantities from each domain. They then repeated the estimations as 3-person groups or individuals. The groups performed at the level of their best members and better than the independent individuals. All 5 domain boundaries improved estimation for both groups and individuals. Estimations were most accurate given the narrow (3rd and 6th) boundaries, suggesting processes of assimilation rather than averaging. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Substantive significance of significant differences between two groups.

A simple extension of discriminant analysis is described which leads to an estimate of the proportion misclassified when significant differences are used for classifying individuals into 2 groups. The estimate is obtained by a simple operation upon the t ratio in the univariate case and upon the multiple point-biserial correlation coefficient in the multivariate case. The assumptions made are those normally employed for the initial test of significance performed on the mean differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Smaller is better (when sampling from the crowd within): Low memory-span individuals benefit more from multiple opportunities for estimation.

Recently, Vul and Pashler (2008) demonstrated that the average of 2 responses from a single subject to general knowledge questions was more accurate than either single estimate. Importantly, this reveals that each guess contributes unique evidence relevant to the decision, contrary to views that eschew probabilistic representations of the evidence-gathering and decision-making processes. We tested an implication of that view by evaluating this effect separately in individuals with a range of memory spans. If memory span is the buffer in which retrieved information is assembled into an evaluation, then multiple estimates in individuals with lower memory spans should exhibit greater independence from one another than in individuals with higher spans. Our results supported this theory by showing that averaging 2 guesses from lower span individuals is more beneficial than averaging 2 guesses from higher span individuals. These results demonstrate a rare circumstance in which lower memory span confers a relative advantage on a cognitive task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological collectivism: A measurement validation and linkage to group member performance.

The 3 studies presented here introduce a new measure of the individual-difference form of collectivism. Psychological collectivism is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct with the following 5 facets: preference for in-groups, reliance on in-groups, concern for in-groups, acceptance of in-group norms, and prioritization of in-group goals. Study 1 developed and tested the new measure in a sample of consultants. Study 2 cross-validated the measure using an alumni sample of a Southeastern university, assessing its convergent validity with other collectivism measures. Study 3 linked scores on the measure to 4 dimensions of group member performance (task performance, citizenship behavior, counterproductive behavior, and withdrawal behavior) in a computer software firm and assessed discriminant validity using the Big Five. The results of the studies support the construct validity of the measure and illustrate the potential value of collectivism as a predictor of group member performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential response to failure in hospital and nonhospital groups.

90 functionally psychotic Ss and 90 nonhospitalized Ss were given varying amounts of failure and nonfailure experiences on a puzzle task. These experiences were temporally associated with a neutral paper-and-pencil task. Tests were made for any differential effect upon preference for the neutral task after this association. A 3-dimensional analysis of variance design yielded sigfinicant results (beyond the .01 level) only in the groups of psychotics subjected to failure. These Ss lowered their preference for the formerly neutral task. The results may indicate a loss in the psychotic's ability to respond differentially and appropriately to individual experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Between-Individual Comparisons in Performance Evaluation: A Perspective From Prospect Theory.

This article examines how between-individual comparisons influence performance evaluations in rating tasks. The authors demonstrated a systematic change in the perceived difference across ratees as a result of changing the way performance information is expressed. Study 1 found that perceived performance difference between 2 individuals was greater when their objective performance levels were presented with small numbers (e.g., absence rates of 2% vs. 5%) than when they were presented with large numbers (e.g., attendance rates of 98% vs. 95%). Extending this finding to situations involving trade-offs between multiple performance attributes across ratees, Study 2 showed that the relative preference for 1 ratee over another actually reversed when the presentation format of the performance information changed. The authors draw upon prospect theory (D. Kahneman & A. Tversky, 1979; A. Tversky & D. Kahneman, 1981) to offer a theoretical framework describing the between-individual comparison aspect of performance evaluation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Culture and group perception: Dispositional and stereotypic inferences about novel and national groups.

In 3 studies, the authors tested the hypothesis that Chinese participants would view social groups as more entitative than would Americans and, as a result, would be more likely to infer personality traits on the basis of group membership--that is, to stereotype. In Study 1, Chinese participants made stronger stereotypic trait inferences than Americans did on the basis of a target's membership in a fictitious group. Studies 2 and 3 showed that Chinese participants perceived diverse groups as more entitative and attributed more internally consistent dispositions to groups and their members. Guided by culturally based lay theories about the entitative nature of groups, Chinese participants may stereotype more readily than do Americans when group membership is available as a source of dispositional inference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The irony of cultural psychology research.

Responds to R. E. Erard's comments (see record 2009-13007-011) on the current authors' original article (see record 2008-12151-002) which reviewed a number of studies that identified cultural differences in the use and effect of different types of social support among Asians and Asian Americans and European Americans. Essentially, in his comment, Erard denied the validity of research examining cultural differences. The authors strongly believe that the issues concerning within-culture variation do not nullify the importance of conducting research on culturally based psychological and behavioral patterns. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of general systems and information theory in multi-factor individuality theory.

Concepts and principles from general systems and information theory are brought to bear on individuality theory. J. G. Miller's conceptual framework for the organism as a general system is singled out for special consideration in relation to the organism as viewed by individuality theory. Individuality theory involves mapping out the dimensions of individual differences in diverse domains (abilities, temperament, styles, values, interests, etc.), organizing the within domain and between-domain relationships into an integrated hierarchical structure, and attempting to explain the interaction and integration of the separate components. Systems and information theory are particularly potent in aiding the accomplishment of the latter two aspects. Thus, factor-identified dimensions of individual differences are viewed as information processors or mediators. Information flow occurs both within and between the sensory, cognitive, affective, style, evaluative, and motor systems, and the integration of the organism depends upon such systemic properties as hierarchical structure, hierarchy of values, steady states, and systems interactions. In this way an attempt is made to bridge three theoretical perspectives, cross-fertilizations of which may produce a vigorous offspring. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Discovering connections: A guide to the fun of bridging disability differences and Connecting kids: Exploring diversity together.

Reviews the books, Discovering connections: A guide to the fun bridging disability differences (1998) and Connecting kids: Exploring diversity together by Linda D. Hill (2001). These two books share a common theme: both provide practical solutions for bridging diversity gaps. The books are meant for anyone who wants to build inclusive groups of adults or children - professionals, volunteers, parents, people with disabilities, and family members and friends of people with disabilities. Discovering Connections provides a template to facilitate a group of adults from diverse backgrounds in the formation of an inclusive, cohesive group. There are 20 sessions organized around 10 themes, each with an armchair activity and a community connection idea. Each theme, in turn, is linked to two connecting skills. Connecting Kids is a travel guide for increasing diversity in children's groups. A set of 20 skills is presented, along with activity suggestions for cooperative games, creative activities, and nature experiences. These activities are designed to build social skills within a safe, inclusive environment and to help children respect and value individual differences. Those who are searching for practical suggestions and activities for creating inclusive groups of adults or children will likely find these books a useful addition to their resource library. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How people explain actions performed by groups and individuals.

The authors explore whether people explain intentional actions performed by groups differently from actions performed by individuals. A theoretical framework is offered that distinguishes between 2 modes of explanation: the agent's reasons (beliefs or desires in light of which the agent decided to act) and causal histories of reasons (CHRs; factors that preceded and brought about the agent's reasons). The authors develop the hypothesis that people use more CHR explanations when explaining group actions than when explaining individual actions. Study 1 demonstrates this asymmetry. Studies 2 and 3 explore 2 necessary conditions for the asymmetry: that the group be perceived as an aggregate of individual actors rather than as a jointly acting group and that explainers have general information available about the group. Discussion focuses on people's perception of groups as entities and agents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Industrial/organizational psychology in Canada: An introduction.

The objective in this Special Issue is to provide colleagues and students with an introduction to current research and professional issues in industrial/organizational psychology in Canada. The authors provide a historical context for that current work and offer some suggestions for future directions. The authors include a cross-section of industrial/organizational psychologists at work in Canada today, reflecting regional, language and gender differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's sleep and cognitive performance: A cross-domain analysis of change over time.

Relations between changes in children's cognitive performance and changes in sleep problems were examined over a 3-year period, and family socioeconomic status, child race/ethnicity, and gender were assessed as moderators of these associations. Participants were 250 second- and third-grade (8–9 years old at Time 1) boys and girls. At each assessment, children's cognitive performance (Verbal Comprehension, Decision Speed) was measured using the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities, and sleep problems (Sleepiness, Sleep/Wake Problems) were collected via self-report. Individual growth models revealed that children who reported increases in Sleepiness exhibited little growth in Verbal Comprehension over time compared with their peers who reported decreases in Sleepiness, resulting in a nearly 11-point cognitive deficit by the end of the study. These associations were not found for Sleep/Wake Problems or Decision Speed. Child race/ethnicity and gender moderated these associations, with Sleepiness serving as a vulnerability factor for poor cognitive outcomes, especially among African American children and girls. Differences in cognitive performance for children with high and low Sleepiness trajectories ranged from 16 to 19 points for African American children and from 11 to 19 points for girls. Results build substantially on existing literature examining associations between sleep and cognitive functioning in children and are the first to demonstrate that children's sleep trajectories over 3 waves were associated with changes in their cognitive performance over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bridging scientist and practitioner perspectives in clinical psychology.

Literature suggests that a complex and often hostile relationship exists between the science and practice of clinical psychology. Contributors to this conflict of viewpoints are reconsidered within the proposition that there are different roads to discovery and that there may be good reasons to keep the science and practice of clinical psychology somewhat separate. Results of a national survey of 325 psychologists are reviewed that support the view that psychological practitioners value research and consider their practices to be augmented by scientific findings. However, they are in need of vehicles of communication that will help them translate scientific findings into practice. Results suggest that practitioners do more to understand scientific findings than scientists do to understand the problems that face clinical practitioners. Ways to facilitate communication between and among these groups are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quality and acceptance of problem solutions by members of homogeneous and heterogeneous groups.

Though previous work by Hoffman (see 34: 954) had demonstrated that higher quality solutions to problems were produced by heterogeneous groupings of people (in terms of personality) than homogeneous, the present research was prompted by the question as to the generalizability of the findings. This study attempts to find where the results relate to situations which enhance group differences in terms of value or attitude held. Even on problems designed to produce emotional conflict, the heterogeneous groups proved to be more effective in problem solving. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4GE01H. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reference groups, membership groups, and attitude change.

"The present study is an examination of the attitude changes which occur over time when reference groups and membership groups are identical and when they are disparate… . The Ss were women students at a large private coeducational university… . In the social context of the lives of the subjects, and in a natural social experiment which provided randomization of the relevant condition effects, the influence of both membership and reference groups on attitude change was assessed. All subjects shared a common reference group at the start of the period of the study. When divergent membership groups with disparate attitude norms were socially imposed on the basis of a random event, attitude change in the subjects over time was a function of the normative attitudes of both imposed membership groups and the individuals' reference groups. The greatest attitude change occurred in subjects who came to take the imposed initially nonpreferred, membership group as their reference group." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bridging the theoretical and applied facets of environmental psychology.

Responds to K. H. Craik's (see record 84-10224) and R. B. Bechtel's (see record 84-10187) comments on D. Stokols's (see record 1996-13229-001) suggestion that the identity of environmental psychology has become more diffuse and transparent over the past 30 yrs. The contrast between Bechtel's emphasis on the applied contributions of environmental psychology and Craik's focus on its core theoretical concerns is noted. Their divergent characterizations of the field reflect its multidisciplinary roots and the diffuseness of its intellectual borders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)