Food additives: recommendations for harmonization and control

The harmonization of international food standards has been a major objective of the Codex Alimentarius Commission since its creation in 1962. Since then, however, many countries have altered their approach to food legislation and have introduced more extensive food labelling legislation and a reduced level of compositional standards. This change is only slowly being reflected in the work of the Codex Commission. This review, originally written for the Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants, highlights how the work of the Committee and the Codex as a whole needs to take account of these developments. International developments are reviewed and from them certain conclusions are drawn and recommendations provided for the future work of Codex. The problems of additives in the Codex context are specifically addressed and it is recommended that countries should be much more prepared to accept international scientific assessments of the safety of additives. There is also a considerable variation in the evaluation of technological need leading to further differences in the use of additives. Countries must be prepared to accept the varying needs of different countries. Clear recommendations are made for the future work of Codex.     

Review of the regulations for contaminants and natural toxicants

Australia and New Zealand have recently adopted a joint standard for the regulation of contaminants and natural toxicants in foods. The standard was developed as part of a general review of food standards in Australia and New Zealand and forms part of the new joint Food Standards Code recently adopted by both Governments. Maximum levels (MLs) for contaminants and natural toxicants were established in the new joint Standard only where they serve an effective risk management function, based on a scientific risk assessment, and only for those foods that provide a significant contribution to the total dietary exposure. To assist both enforcement agencies and industry to maintain contaminant levels at the lowest achievable levels, generally expected levels (GELs), have been established to complement the use of MLs. GELs, while not legally enforceable, provide a benchmark against which to measure contaminant levels in foods.     

Reform of food regulation in Australia and New Zealand

Australia and New Zealand agreed to establish a joint system for developing food standards in 1996. The establishment of the joint system provided the opportunity to reform the food regulatory requirements for composition, labelling and contaminants, culminating in the development of the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code. In addition to the development of the joint food standards system, several other regulatory reforms have occurred over the same period. These include the establishment in Australia of a national food safety regulatory system, and in both countries, a shift towards the pre-market safety assessment and approval of certain whole foods, such as genetically modified foods. The impact of the regulatory reforms is subject to an ongoing program of evaluation.     

Regulation of genetically modified foods in Australia and New Zealand

Food standards in Australia and New Zealand build on the level of food safety that is generally accepted by the community. An explicitly cautious approach is applied in cases where there is no established history of safe human consumption, as is the case for foods produced using gene technology. Novel foods, including genetically modified (GM) foods, undergo a mandatory pre-market safety assessment and approval process. The approach used in Australia and New Zealand to assess the safety of foods produced using gene technology draws on concepts and principles that have been developed internationally.     

The consolidation of food contaminants standards in China

China has recently revised the general standard for contaminants in foods. According to the Food Safety Law, all the national standards related to food contaminants were reviewed and eventually consolidated into the General Standard for Contaminants in Foods (GB 2762-2012) as part of the mandatory national food safety standards system. Maximum levels (MLs) for contaminants were established in the new standard system only where they are carried out risk management with a sound scientific judgment for effective risk management, and only for those foods that provide a significant contribution to the total dietary exposure. In this paper, the process and rationales for the consolidation practice is described as well as the outcomes of the consolidation are reported.     

New food labelling initiatives in Australia and New Zealand

A key element of the review of food standards in Australia and New Zealand was the review of labelling provisions. This review resulted in a number of new labelling initiatives, three of which––percentage labelling of key or characterising ingredients, mandatory nutrition information panels and mandatory labelling of certain substances in foods that may cause severe adverse reactions––are discussed in this paper. These labelling initiatives exemplify the shift globally towards the provision of greater consumer information. The new food labelling standards in the joint Australia/New Zealand Food Standards Code were developed specifically to address two main regulatory objectives: the protection of public health and safety; and the provision of adequate information to consumers to enable them to make informed choices. The new provisions have been phased in over a period of two years which has enabled manufacturers to re-label their products as part of their scheduled periodic review of products.     

HACCP-based approach to the derivation of an on-farm food safety program for the Australian red meat industry

The standard Codex HACCP approach was modified to allow a hazard analysis to be conducted at an industry level which could then be used to derive appropriate on-farm food safety control measures for cattle, sheep and goat production in Australia. Scientific information from a through chain risk profile of the red meat industry was used as a major resource for the hazard analysis. The process resulted in the identification of critical control points for control of bovine spongioform encephalopathy (BSE), prevention of violations of maximum residue limits with agricultural and veterinary chemicals and infection with Cysticercus bovis (Beef Measles). By applying this HACCP-based approach it was determined that the application of a simple set of good agricultural practices (GAP) on-farm would be effective in ensuring low risk. It was, therefore, concluded that on-farm food safety schemes may not warrant full HACCP plans at the individual enterprise level as long as appropriate GAP is in place. The results provide red meat producers with the elements of a HACCP-based food safety scheme that is scientifically justifiable, understandable and realistic to apply which are essential elements that underpin successful implementation and compliance by industry. Subsequently, an on-farm food safety program has been developed to provide an appropriate level of protection for consumers as well as to protect Australia’s trade from food safety-related issues.     

Example of a microbiological criterion (MC) for verifying the performance of a food safety control system: Campylobacter Performance Target at end of processing of broiler chickens

New Zealand has focused on improving the food safety control systems for slaughter and dressing of broiler chickens in order to get a reduction in Campylobacter levels on carcasses at the end of primary processing. Each processor decides which good hygienic practice-based and hazard-based control measures to apply. Codex guidelines provide valuable information to assist with these decisions. To verify that the resulting control systems are effective, New Zealand established a microbiological criterion for Campylobacter which is applied after slaughter and dressing and initial chilling of broiler chickens. New Zealand calls this a regulatory Campylobacter Performance Target (CPT). Samples are tested by a direct plate enumeration method. Results are analysed using a “moving window approach” to aid data interpretation and decision-making. A “moving window limit” failure occurs when the log count for seven or more out of 45 samples in the moving window are greater than the established target of 3.78 log₁₀ cfu/carcass. If processors meet the “target” this verifies that their process is under control. If processors fail the “target” they are expected to take corrective actions to restore control. If the processor's actions do not restore control in a timely fashion, the regulator applies further controls. This example is based on actual data from New Zealand poultry processers. The application of this microbiological criterion is flexible and other countries may be able to adapt this approach to suit their particular circumstances.     

HACCP-based program for on-farm food safety for pig production in Australia

The standard Codex HACCP approach was modified to allow a hazard analysis and critical control point determination to be conducted at an industry level and then used to determine the appropriate on-farm food safety control measures for pig production in Australia. A detailed risk-based profile with hazard identification, hazard characterisation and levels of microbial contamination for production and primary processing was used as a major technical resource to inform HACCP determinations. The process resulted in the identification of Critical Control Points for control of a specific physical hazard (non-recovered broken needles) and prevention of violations of Maximum Residue Limits with agricultural and veterinary chemicals. In relation to the identified microbiological hazards, it was noted that there are numerous Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) to prevent and/or reduce their risk and these controls would also need to be a feature of any on-farm food safety program. By applying a HACCP-based approach it was determined that the application of a set of Good Agricultural Practices on-farm would be effective in ensuring low risk. It was, therefore, concluded that on-farm food safety programs may not warrant full (i.e. Codex compliant) HACCP plans at the individual enterprise level provided appropriate GAP is in place. The results provide pig producers and the Australian pig industry with the elements of a HACCP-based food safety system that are scientifically justifiable, understandable and realistic to apply. These features are essential elements that underpin successful implementation and compliance by industry.     

Implementation of non-regulatory food safety management schemes in New Zealand: A survey of the food and beverage industry

Using a questionnaire survey, this paper examines the motivations, challenges, and impacts, and the role of third-party certification bodies' (CBs) in the implementation of non-regulatory food safety management schemes (FSMS) in the New Zealand food and beverage industry. The survey involved 115 manufacturing enterprises out of which 95.7% indicated that they had one or more FSMS in place, and 43.5% stated that they implemented one or more non-regulatory FSMS. Three main categories of non-regulatory FSMS have been implemented in New Zealand: public international standard schemes, public industry sector schemes and private individual firm schemes. The most important motivation for implementing non-regulatory FSMS is meeting the requirements of major customers. As a consequence of the implementation of non-regulatory FSMS, desirable changes have been experienced by the respondents, such as the improvement of product traceability, increasing food safety awareness of employees, satisfaction with the ability to maintain customers, decreasing the cost of wastage and reduced customer complaints. The results also indicated that the major challenges encountered during the implementation of non-regulatory FSMS were increased paper work, record keeping and documentation, and the cost of development and implementation. The costs of system design and development, and external audit fees are the major implementation costs of non-regulatory FSMS, while external surveillance audit fees and product testing are the significant operating costs of non-regulatory FSMS. The third-party CBs' service was rated by 66.0% of respondents as an important tool for them to continuously improve their food safety management.     

The risk management dilemma for fumonisin mycotoxins

Since the discovery of the fumonisins in 1988, extensive academic studies have generated much knowledge, including data on chemistry, biochemistry, toxicology, methods of analysis, natural occurrence in food supplies, fate during various processing procedures, and human and animal exposures. These mycotoxins have also been assessed by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and have twice been the subject of risk assessments by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The outcome of these investigations has been of a nature to alert risk managers to the necessity of controlling human exposure. However, the fumonisins occur mostly in maize, a world staple crop which is consumed in various communities at levels which can be as many as 100-fold different. Compounding the problem is the fact that maize is widely used as animal feed in many developed countries, whereas in Africa and some other developing countries, it is the primary food source. This contrast produces a problem for risk managers, partly solved at national level by the regulation of maximum tolerated levels (MTLs) applicable to individual countries. MTLs at an international level are currently under discussion at the Codex Committee on Contaminants in Food. The divergence in use and consumption and the fact that maize in various regions of the world can also vary greatly in contamination levels, leads to a dilemma for setting such MTLs, which would need to be low to protect the high maize consumers, but might then cause rejection of high amounts of the world supply. Higher MTLs, acceptable to maize exporters, would only protect the low maize consumers. This dilemma may only be solved by accepting that harmonizing regulations for raw maize is problematic and a more nuanced approach may be required.     

The role of the Canadian government agency in assessing HACCP

In Canada, two food inspection programs have developed to embody internationally recognized principles of safe food processing. The Food Safety Enhancement Program (FSEP) is for establishments registered under the Meat Inspection Act and the Canada Agricultural Products Act, while the Quality Management Program (QMP) is for federally registered fish processing establishments. Both FSEP and QMP are fully compatible with the international HACCP guidelines adopted by Codex alimentarius. Under both QMP and FSEP initiatives, food manufacturers are responsible for the development, implementation and maintenance of HACCP food safety systems. The CFIA is responsible for verifying or auditing that industry operates acceptable systems.     

Regulations and factory enforcement arising from the UK Food Safety Bill Keith G Anderson outlines the implications

Apart from the revision of the Food Act 1984, and the introduction of new food safety provisions, powers to regulate, and more severe penalties for infringement, the Food Safety Bill encompasses the requirements necessary for the introduction of the EC Directive on the Official Control of Foodstuffs into UK law, a requirement for the completion of the Single European Market by the end of 1992. For the first time this effectively moves the emphasis for enforcement from the point of sale to the point of production, preparation or importation. It also introduces the possibility of a ‘due diligence’ defence in the event of prosecution. The new legislation requires that enforcement authorities carry out inspection of food manufacturing premises and operations for compliance, and allows the enforcement officer access to relevant information which may allow him to judge whether or not the requirements are being met.     

Study on food safety concerns,knowledge and practices among university students in Saudi Arabia

Food Safety is important not only for the health of consumers but also the entire food industry and regulatory authorities. University students are an important target group as they are most likely to engage in risky eating behaviors and food handling practices making them susceptible to foodborne illness. The objectives of this study were to assess the level of food safety concerns, knowledge and practices among male and female university students of King Saud University, Saudi Arabia. Information concerning sociodemographic and academic characteristics and food safety knowledge were collected using self-administered questionnaire. Food safety questions were divided into four sections that covered key food safety concepts. A total of 808 students took questionnaires of which 66.08% responded (mean age 21.1 ± 2.9). Major food concerns for students were food taste, food temperature, food presentation, wellness of cooked food, cleanliness of serving area and appearance of food handlers. Students displayed good knowledge concerning food safety. Respondents were most knowledgeable about the cleanliness of kitchen surfaces and utensils, prevention of cross contamination and hand hygiene but demonstrated poor knowledge about heat treatment of food and temperature. Good knowledge of food safety was reflected in food safety practiced by the students except temperature control. Chi-square test results revealed that both male and female students demonstrated comparable food safety knowledge and practices. This is probably the first gender-based report on the food safety concerns, knowledge and practice among students of King Saud University, Saudi Arabia. The study highlights the need for educational programs that aim not only to provide knowledge but also encourage the students to practice the food safety measures strictly.     

Compatibility of the SAFE FOODS Risk Analysis Framework with the legal and institutional settings of the EU and the WTO

This paper analyses the compatibility of the SAFE FOODS recommendations with the food safety governance systems of the EU and the World Trade Organisation (WTO), in which standard setting procedures of the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) are considered most relevant. The objective is to better understand the implications from (1) the addition of formalised framing and evaluation stages to the risk analysis process and (2) the expansion of the scope of the risk assessment to comprise the distribution of risks, benefits and costs of regulatory measures. The paper concludes that these recommendations of the SAFE FOODS project are compatible to EU law provided they are fine-tuned to legal provisions on specific roles for agencies, EU Member States and the European Commission services. All recommendations are deemed largely compatible with the rules for procedure of the CAC.     

Public and private standards for dried culinary herbs and spices—Part I: Standards defining the physical and chemical product quality and safety

Dried spices and culinary herbs are vulnerable products, which are used for their aroma (and colour). They are important ingredients in many processed foods, e.g. meat products, dairy products, and bakery products, and in most of our dishes. Food processors and consumers have high expectations regarding the organoleptic quality of culinary herbs and spices. Moreover, although used at relatively low amounts, herbs and spices can represent a health threat to the consumer, e.g. when contaminated with mycotoxins or adulterated with harmful colourants. The current review provides an overview from a European perspective on product standards covering (i) general physical and chemical specifications important for product quality and (ii) chemical characteristics concerning the safety of culinary herbs and spices. Focus is given to standards addressing dried culinary herbs and spices on global and European Union (EU) level. At some points, additional information on fresh herbs and on some national standards of non-EU member states is provided.General specifications for individual herbs and spices based on international agreements are developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and are currently under development by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. Besides global standards, the review outlines product specifications for dried culinary herbs and spices that are defined by national bodies and industry associations. To reduce potential chemical hazards, specific maximum and action levels are laid down for culinary herbs and spices. In EU law, these address besides residues of pesticides certain mycotoxins, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, and additives as described in the following.     

New Zealand approaches to HACCP systems

HACCP is becoming an increasingly important component of food safety assurances for international trade and this includes the expectation that the exporting country will meet similar or equivalent HACCP requirements to those of the importing country. The influence of market access requirements and the existing legislative requirements and infrastructure of New Zealand determine the government’s role in assessing HACCP systems. Recent structural changes in New Zealand has introduced flexibility in this role. The importance of building blocks for HACCP such as prerequisite programmes, food safety objectives, generic HACCP plans, HACCP specifications, and audit competency requirements are emphasised. Government role in assessment is discussed, including the initial “recognition” of a validated HACCP plan followed by performance-based compliance audits.     

The role of the Hellenic Food Safety Authority in Greece—Implementation strategies

During the last 15 years, a series of food scares and crises (BSE, dioxin, foot and mouth disease) have seriously undermined public confidence in food producers and operators and their capacity to produce safe food. As a result, food safety has become a top priority of the European legislative authorities and systems of national food control have been tightened up and have included the establishment of the European Food Safety Authority. In Greece a law creating the Hellenic Food Safety Authority has been approved. The main objectives of this Authority are to promote the food security to consumers and inform them of any changes or any development in the food and health sector.

The paper reviews the general structure of the current food control system in Greece. It describes the structure and the mission of the Hellenic Food Safety Authority and explains the strategy to carry out inspections and the analysis of the preliminary results of such inspections. Details are also given of the personnel training and certification and accreditation standards to be met by the Authority by the end of 2004.     

Food safety regulatory model in India

The changing food safety standards, stricter sanitary and phyto-sanitary requirements and improved global product norms trigger the necessity to improve legislative network of a country based on codex Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP). Due to multiplicity of laws in a majority of developing nations processed food industry is facing a major threat for survival and growth. In India nine different ministries were involved in controlling this area. Food Safety and Standards Act was established to integrate the food safety laws in India, in-order-to systematically and scientifically re-orient food processing and manufacturing industry from regulation to self-compliance. In this study, authors' focuses on issues related to the food legislation enforced time to time based on international scenario and trade. This study brings out the fact that more holistic approach is seen in new scientific standard development and covers a wider variety of products including functional food, novel food and beverages. The basic requirements of food hygiene and Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) practices as described by codex are important for any national food safety control. However, the study concludes that there exists a gap in infrastructure and risk-based approach in the both implementation and enforcement. The study also provides the SWOT analysis of Indian legislative model and recommendation for improvement.     

Risk assessment procedures used by the Codex Alimentarius Commission and its subsidiary and advisory bodies

The paper, prepared for consideration by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, provides a review of the risk assessment procedures associated with the work of the Codex Alimentarius. After describing, in general terms, the main aspects of risk analysis, certain general considerations relating to the assessment of health risks in foods are presented. More detailed presentations follow for the relevant approaches of the advisory bodies (JECFA and JMPR) and for the subsidiary bodies whose work includes aspects of risk assessment. These cover additives and contaminants (CCFAC), residues of veterinary drugs (CCRVDF), pesticide residues (CCPR), food hygiene (CCFH) and meat hygiene (CCMH). Recommendations for the future are also provided.