Strength and strain capacities of concrete compression members reinforced with FRP

The analytical compressive behavior of concrete members reinforced with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) was examined. The variation in the shape of the transverse cross-section was analyzed. The bearing capacity and the increase in the maximum strain for members having a cross-section which was circular, square or square with round corners reinforced with FRP were determined. The proposed analytical model allows one to evaluate the confining pressure in ultimate conditions considering the effective confined cross-section and also allows one to determine the ultimate strain corresponding to FRP failure through a simplified energetic approach. Analytical results are then compared to experimental values available in the literature, showing good agreement.     

Guidelines for flexural resistance of FRP reinforced concrete slabs and beams in fire

Several building codes are currently available for the design of concrete structures reinforced with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars. Nevertheless, there is little information provided about structural behavior in case of fire and no reliable design methods are available for FRP reinforced concrete (RC) members in fire. The goal of this paper is to provide guidelines for the calculation of the resistant bending moment of FRP-RC members exposed to fire in compliance with the provisions of Eurocodes, based on studies recently carried out by the authors. The paper provides a conceptual approach to fire safety checks for bending moment resistance of FRP-RC members. With reference to thermo-mechanical analysis, a simplified design method (for both thermal and mechanical analyses) for sagging bending moment resistance of FRP-RC slabs in fire situations is finally suggested.     

Crack width evaluation in FRP reinforced concrete members

This study proposes a model for calculating the average width of cracks in reinforced concrete (RC) elements using non metallic reinforcement bars (FRP). This model has already been applied to the case of steel reinforcing bars successfully. It considers the influence of the percentage of reinforcement and the concrete strength. It emphasizes how the mechanical features of FRP (fiber reinforced polymer) bars, and particularly their modulus of elasticity, can affect the crack width. The model is validated with experimental results available in the literature. An example of its application for the calculation of the crack width is shown.

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Résumé  Cet article présente l'application d'un modèle de prévision de l'amplitude des fissures en présence d'armatures non métalliques et de classes de résistance du béton allant de 30 à 80 MPa. L'analyse théorique est utilisée pour interpréter les résultats d'essais expérimentaux sur des traverses en béton armé contenant des polymères renforcés de fibres (FRP) soumises à des forces de traction. Le but de cette recherche était d'étudier et de prévoir la largeur des fissures, en utilisant comme paramètres de base la contrainte dans l'acier et la distance moyenne entre les fissures. La recherche décrit aussi l'amplitude des fissures, pour la même traverse, en présence d'armatures en acier et en polymères renforcés de fibres (FRP).

     

Mean steel strain in reinforced concrete flexural members

Knowledge of the mean steel strain, as different from the steel strain at a crack, is of considerable significance in the calculation of crack widths and deflections which are among the important limit-states to be considered in the modern limit-state design concept. Six different theories presently available in literature for predicting the average steel strain in reinforced concrete flexural members have been compared amongst themselves and with test results. It is found that the method proposed by Rao predicts the mean steel strains more accurately than the other methods. On the basis of the earlier theories, the author proposes an empirical equation which fairly agrees with experimental results. The effect of load repetitions on the mean steel strain has been discussed.     

Durability issues of FRP rebars in reinforced concrete members

The use of fibre reinforced polymers (FRPs) as rebars in reinforced concrete (RC) elements is a viable means to prevent corrosion effects that reduce the service life of members employing steel reinforcement. However, durability of FRP rebars is not straightforward as it is related to material properties as well as bar–concrete interaction. A state of the art of durability of FRP rebars is presented herein in order to highlight issues related to the material properties and interaction mechanisms which influence the service life of RC elements. The design approach implemented in international codes is discussed and the reduction factors taking into account the durability performances are summarized.     

Ductility of FRP plated flexural members

The design of reinforced concrete (RC) flexural members such as beams, slabs and columns is intrinsically based on the inherent ductility of the member. In reinforced concrete beams and slabs, ductility is generally achieved by using ‘under-reinforced’ sections and generally governed by the neutral axis depth parameter k_u which requires ultimate failure by concrete crushing at a specified strain ε_c. As the plates of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) plated RC beams can fracture or debond before the concrete crushes at ε_c, the k_u approach is not directly applicable. Hence, new fundamental approaches and a deeper understanding of ductility are required which are the subjects of this paper.     

Efficient technique for constitutive analysis of reinforced concrete flexural members

One of the most difficult issues in the theory of reinforced concrete (RC) is an adequate modelling of deformation behaviour, cracking and, particularly, post-cracking behaviour, as one of the major sources of non-linearity. Applying the concept of average cracking and average strains, deformation behaviour of RC can be modelled by stress–strain tension–stiffening relationships. The authors proposed an innovative inverse technique for constitutive modelling of flexural RC elements. The technique is based on the smeared crack approach and layer model of RC section. The inverse technique aims at deriving tension–stiffening constitutive models from experimental moment–curvature diagrams. The present analysis takes into account the shrinkage effect that is often neglected in other studies. Based on the inverse technique, free-of-shrinkage tension–stiffening relationships are derived using test data of shrunk RC beams. Examples of the application for the analysis of the experimental data obtained by the authors are presented to illustrate the calculation efficiency of the proposed technique.     

Substandard reinforced concrete members subjected to compression: FRP confining effects

The investigation focuses on the effectiveness of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) confinement in upgrading ductility and strength of reinforced concrete members under axial monotonic compression. An experimental program is presented that extends available database to address the behavior of old type members with square section, having extremely low concrete strength and potential longitudinal bars’ premature buckling. Reinforced concrete specimens were strengthened by carbon or glass FRP wraps while plain FRP confined concrete specimens were also constructed and tested to evaluate comparatively the confining effects of steel stirrups, FRP wraps, or of dual confinement. The achieved strength, ductility and energy absorption levels of the specimens were quantified to assess the effect of the longitudinal bars. Finally, a handy design-oriented empirical strength model is proposed. According to the proposed approach, no estimation of effective stress or strain at failure of FRP jacket is necessary. The satisfactory accuracy of the predictions of the proposed model is demonstrated through comparison against existing models and over a large database of results on uniform confinement as well as over presented specimens.     

FRP reinforced/prestressed concrete members: A torsional design model

The torsional design provisions of the Canadian standard S806 for fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforced (RC) or prestressted (PC) concrete members are presented and their theoretical and empirical justifications are provided. The key parameters governing the nominal torsional strength are identified and their appropriate values for FRP-RC/PC members are specified. The accuracy of the method is evaluated by analyzing 27 FRP-RC/PC members tested under pure torsion by other investigators. The CSA method is able to reasonably predict the torsional strength of these beams. It is also shown that the cracking torque can be predicted using the formulas in the ACI and AASHTO LRFD codes without any modification. Some considerations with the statements of CNR-DT 203, fib 40, JSCE guidelines are also carried out.     

Behavior of full-scale reinforced concrete beams retrofitted for shear and flexural with FRP laminates

Four full-scale reinforced concrete beams were replicated from an existing bridge. The original beams were substantially deficient in shear strength, particularly for projected increase of traffic loads. Of the four replicate beams, one served as a control and the remaining three were implemented with varying configurations of carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) and glass FRP (GFRP) composites to simulate the retrofit of the existing structure. CFRP unidirectional sheets were placed to increase flexural capacity and GFRP unidirectional sheets were utilized to mitigate shear failure. Four-point bending tests were conducted. Load, deflection and strain data were collected. Fiber optic gauges were utilized in high flexural and shear regions and conventional resistive gauges were placed in eighteen locations to provide behavioral understanding of the composite material strengthening. Fiber optic readings were compared to conventional gauges.Results from this study show that the use of fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) composites for structural strengthening provides significant static capacity increases approximately 150% when compared to unstrengthened sections. Load at first crack and post cracking stiffness of all beams was increased primarily due to flexural CFRP. Test results suggest that beams retrofit with both the designed GFRP and CFRP should well exceed the static demand of 658 kN m sustaining up to 868 kN m applied moment. The addition of GFRP alone for shear was sufficient to offset the lack of steel stirrups and allow conventional RC beam failure by yielding of the tension steel. This allowed ultimate deflections to be 200% higher than the pre-existing shear deficient beam. If bridge beams were retrofit with only the designed CFRP failure would still result from diagonal tension cracks, albeit at a 31% greater load. Beams retrofit with only the designed shear GFRP would fail in flexure at the mid-span at an equivalent 31% gain over the control specimen, failing mechanism in this case being yielding of the tension steel. Successful monitoring of strain using fiber optics was achieved. However, careful planning tempered by engineering judgement is necessary as the location and gauge length of the fiber optic gauge will determine the usefulness of the collected data.     

Experimental investigation into flexural retrofitting of reinforced concrete bridge beams using FRP composites

End cover separation and shear crack debond are the two most critical debonding modes in beams retrofitted with fibre reinforced polymer composites due the brittle nature of the failures. However, these failures are still not fully understood. A testing program including 18 rectangular reinforced concrete beams is carried out to investigate the failure mechanisms and the influence of several parameters on these debond modes. Testing shows that end cover separation starts from FRP ends and fails in the form of shear failure at steel reinforcement level at the root of the concrete teeth between shear cracks. Shear crack debond failure is due to the opening of one of those inclined cracks. Several debond prediction models are then verified with the experiment proving to work relatively well.     

Effect of specimen size on flexural compressive strength of reinforced concrete members

It is important to consider the effect of member size when estimating the ultimate strength of a concrete flexural member, because the strength always decreases with an increase of member size except for well-reinforced members. Research conducted previously in this area include axial compressive strength size effect on cylindrical specimens and flexural compressive strength size effect on C-shaped specimens, notched cylindrical specimens, and axially loaded double cantilever beam (DCB) specimens. Since the most widely used flexural member type is reinforced concrete (RC) beams, it is logical to extend the study of flexural compressive strength size effect to flexural loaded RC beam members. Previously, several researchers have reported from their studies that flexural compressive strength size effect does not exist. However, the analyses show that the specimens used for the study had limited size variation and the neutral axis depth variations were too similar to show distinct size effect. Therefore, this study enforced distinct neutral axis depth variations for all of the tested specimens.In this study, the size effect of a RC beam was experimentally investigated. For this purpose, a series of beam specimens subjected to four-point loading was tested. RC beams with three different effective depths were tested to investigate the size effect. The shear-span to depth ratio and the thickness of the specimens were kept constant to eliminate the out-of-plane size effect.The test results are curve fitted using Levenberg–Marquardt’s Least Square Method (LSM) to obtain parameters for Modified Size Effect Law (MSEL) by Kim et al. The analysis results show that the flexural compression strength and ultimate strain decrease as the specimen size increases. Comparisons with existing research results considering the depth of neutral axis were also performed. They also show that the current strength criteria-based design practice should be reviewed to include member size effect.     

Experimental testing of reinforced concrete and reinforced ECC flexural members subjected to various cyclic deformation histories

Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) materials have been designed to exhibit high tensile ductility compared to traditional concrete. ECCs have also shown improved damage tolerance in compression. When reinforced with steel, ECC components have been proposed for enhanced seismic resistance in structural applications. Because of the uncertainty associated with ground motions, determining an appropriate cyclic deformation history for seismic testing of structural components is a challenge. Three reinforced ECC and three reinforced concrete beams were tested under three different cyclic loading protocols. Cracking, strain in the steel reinforcement, and hysteretic response were monitored. The reinforced ECC beams exhibited an increase in ductility and hysteretic energy dissipated over the reinforced concrete beams, particularly when subjected to a deformation history containing large initial deformation pulses. The presence and magnitude of initial pulses did not affect ductility or failure mode of the ECC beams, and is not expected to be relevant in design of reinforced ECC beams for collapse prevention.     

Experimental study and code predictions of fibre reinforced polymer reinforced concrete (FRP RC) tensile members

Due to their different mechanical properties, cracking and deformability behaviour of FRP reinforced concrete (FRP RC) members is quite different from traditional steel reinforced concrete (SRC) having great incidence on their serviceability design. This paper presents and discusses the results of an experimental programme concerning concrete tension members reinforced with glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars. The main aim of the study is to evaluate the response of GFRP reinforced concrete (GFRP RC) tension members in terms of cracking and deformations. The results show the dependence of load-deformation response and crack spacing on the reinforcement ratio. The experimental results are compared to prediction models from codes and guidelines (ACI and Eurocode 2) and the suitability of the different approaches for predicting the behaviour of tensile members is analysed and discussed.     

Neural network modelling for shear strength of concrete members reinforced with FRP bars

This paper investigates the feasibility of using artificial neural networks (NNs) to predict the shear capacity of concrete members reinforced longitudinally with fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) bars, and without any shear reinforcement. An experimental database of 138 test specimens failed in shear is created and used to train and test NNs as well as to assess the accuracy of three existing shear design methods. The created NN predicted to a high level of accuracy the shear capacity of FRP reinforced concrete members.Garson index was employed to identify the relative importance of the influencing parameters on the shear capacity based on the trained NNs weightings. A parametric analysis was also conducted using the trained NN to establish the trend of the main influencing variables on the shear capacity. Many of the assumptions made by the shear design methods are predicted by the NN developed; however, few are inconsistent with the NN predictions.     

An investigation on spacing of cracks and maximum crackwidth in reinforced concrete flexural members

A method is proposed to determine the crack spacing and maximum crackwidth in reinforced concrete flexural members. The constants appearing in the proposed method are determined from a statistical analysis of the the test results of Hognestad, Clark and Baseet al. Experimental crackwidth values are compared with the crackwidth values computed from the equations given by CP110, Model Code, Gergely and Lutz and the proposed method and the results are discussed.

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Résumé On propose une méthode de détermination de l'espacement des fissures et de leur largeur maximale dans des éléments de béton armé travaillant en flexion. On détermine les constantes de la méthode proposée à partir d'une analyse statistique des résultats d'essai de Hognestad, Clark et Baseet al. On compare les valeurs expérimentales de largeur des fissures d'après les équations fournies par CP 110, le Code Modèle, Gergely et Lutz, on discute la méthode proposée et les résultats.

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Stress block parameters for concrete flexural members reinforced with superelastic shape memory alloys

The unique properties of superelastic shape memory alloys (SMAs) have motivated researchers to explore their use as reinforcing bars. The capacity of a steel reinforced concrete (RC) section is calculated by assuming a maximum concrete strain ε _c-max and utilizing stress block parameters, α ₁ and β ₁, to simplify the non-linear stress–strain curve of concrete. Recommended values for ε _c-max, α ₁, and β ₁ are given in different design standards. However, these values are expected to be different for SMA RC sections. In this paper, the suitability of using sectional analysis to evaluate the monotonic moment–curvature relationship for SMA RC sections is investigated. A parametric study is then conducted to identify the characteristics of this relationship for steel and SMA RC sections. Specific mechanical properties are assumed for both steel and SMA. Results were used to evaluate ε _c-max, α ₁, and β ₁ values given in the Canadian standards and to propose equations to estimate their recommended values for steel and SMA RC sections.     

Strength and fracture properties of industrially prepared steel fibre reinforced concrete

The paper reports on a study of steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) which was prepared using normal industrial mixing, compaction and curing conditions. Both strength (compressive and tensile) and fracture (toughness measurements) characteristics have been investigated with test specimens prepared from 5 m long SFRC piles. The piles contained only steel fibre reinforcement and were manufactured in exactly the same way as ordinary piles.Slight differences in the tensile strengths (determined via torsion tests) were observed due to the existence of preferential fibre orientation. Flexural tests on notched beams (to evaluate fracture characteristics) produced a much more stable, reproducible, test than that observed for un-notched beams. Hence, it is concluded that the notched beam is a better geometry in terms of test stability and reliability. The results showed that tests specimens taken from industrially prepared SFRC displayed similar characteristics compared to that observed with test specimens prepared under laboratory conditions, with regards to the strength, fracture characteristics and, in particular, the variation observed.     

Effect of steel and synthetic fibers on flexural behavior of high-strength concrete beams reinforced with FRP bars

Six high-strength concrete beam specimens reinforced with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars were constructed and tested. Three of the beams were reinforced with carbon FRP (CFRP) bars and the other three beams were reinforced with glass FRP (GFRP) bars as flexural reinforcements. Steel fibers and polyolefin synthetic fibers were used as reinforcing discrete fibers. An investigation was performed on the influence of the addition of fibers on load-carrying capacity, cracking response, and ductility. In addition, the test results were compared with the predictions for the ultimate flexural moment. The addition of fibers increased the first-cracking load, ultimate flexural strength, and ductility, and also mitigated the large crack width of the FRP bar-reinforced concrete beams.