A self-reinforced cementitious composite for building-scale 3D printing

A design scheme for self-reinforced cementitious composites to be used for building-scale 3D printing processes is introduced. The design is based on that of engineered cementitious composites, which include dispersed short polymer fibers to generate robust tensile strain-hardening. The mechanical property profile of these printable ECC materials is meant to eliminate the need for steel reinforcement in printed structures, providing more freedom and efficiency for building-scale 3D printing processes. The fresh state rheological properties have been systematically manipulated to allow printability. Effects on fresh state workability of several compositional ingredients and processing parameters are investigated herein. To maintain consistent printing performance with a batch mixing approach, thixotropy in the fresh state is exploited to temporarily decouple hardening behavior from the processing timeline. Minimal workability loss under continued shear agitation is achieved. Mechanical properties of the printable materials are characterized and the printability of the materials is demonstrated.     

Effect of steel fiber hybridization on the fracture behavior of self-consolidating concretes

In the present work the effect of steel fiber hybridization on the mechanical and rheological behavior of self-consolidating concretes was studied. Straight and hooked end steel fibers with different lengths and diameters were used as reinforcement in fiber volume fractions of 1.0% and 1.5%. The viscosity and shear yield stress of the concretes was determined using a parallel plate rheometer. The mechanical behavior was determined by means of compression, tension and bending tests. The movement of the neutral axis under bending load was experimentally determined by strain-gages attached to compression and tensile surfaces. The mechanical response of the material under bi-axial bending was addressed using the round panel test in three different boundary conditions. The obtained results indicated that the fiber hybridization improved the behavior of the composites for low strain and displacement levels increasing the serviceability limit state of the same through the control of the crack width.     

Rheology, fiber dispersion, and robust properties of Engineered Cementitious Composites

The capability of processing robust Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) materials with consistent mechanical properties is crucial for gaining acceptance of this new construction material in various structural applications. ECC’s tensile strain-hardening behavior and magnitude of tensile strain capacity are closely associated with fiber dispersion uniformity, which determines the fiber bridging strength, complementary energy, critical flaw size and degree of multiple-crack saturation. This study investigates the correlation between the rheological parameters of ECC mortar before adding PVA fibers, dispersion of PVA fibers, and ECC composite tensile properties. The correlation between Marsh cone flow rate and plastic viscosity was established for ECC mortar, justifying the use of the Marsh cone as a simple rheology measurement and control method before fibers are added. An optimal range of Marsh cone flow rate was found that led to improved fiber dispersion uniformity and more consistent tensile strain capacity in the composite. When coupled with the micromechanics based ingredient-tailoring methodology, this rheological control approach serves as an effective ECC fresh property design guide for achieving robust ECC composite hardening properties.     

ECC材料力学性能与本构关系研究进展

混凝土在国内外应用广泛,但普通混凝土材料存在抗拉强度低、韧性差和脆性特征明显等缺点。自20世纪90年代采用性能驱动设计方法(PDDA)成功配制工程水泥基复合材料(ECC)后,仅在几年时间里,ECC材料受到了研究者的广泛关注。相比普通混凝土,采用PDDA得到的ECC的外掺纤维与基体界面有良好的粘结作用,这使得ECC材料具有应变硬化和多缝开展等重要特征。由于ECC优异的力学性能,使用其替代混凝土便成为解决混凝土脆性、裂缝开展等相关问题的一种有效的新途径。 然而, ECC的制备极不容易,由于基体胶凝材料产地不同或者纤维种类不同,某一地区配制成功的配合比大多无法适用于其他地区。因此,根据当地情况进行ECC材料的配合比设计仍然是各国学者青睐的课题。一方面,欲使用ECC代替混凝土用于建筑结构等,就必定要深入研究ECC材料层面的基本力学性能。建立ECC的本构模型对ECC构件甚至结构层面的研究都十分重要,但相关研究较少。另一方面,由于ECC材料良好的裂缝控制能力,国内外学者也致力于使用ECC材料进行结构加固修复的研究。 各国学者先后成功配制极限拉应变大于3%的ECC,这为进一步广泛开展ECC的研究和应用创造了很好的条件,用于配制ECC的纤维种类也更加丰富。在ECC拉伸、压缩、弯曲和剪切等大量的材料试验研究基础上,近几年,一些科研团队开始尝试用ECC部分甚至完全代替混凝土来浇筑梁、柱等构件,然后进行ECC构件层次的力学性能和耐久性等研究;另有部分研究人员也致力于建立ECC的本构模型,开展数值模拟分析。此外,由于ECC优异的力学性能,也有学者提出可以采用3D打印技术来建造无筋ECC建筑。 本文从ECC材料层面的单轴单调拉压力学性能、单轴循环拉压滞回性能、多轴力学性能及破坏准则、ECC与普通钢筋和纤维增强塑料(FRP)筋两种筋材的粘结性能方面进行综述,相应介绍了几种本构模型并简要对其进行评价,以期为用ECC代替混凝土进行建筑结构设计、选取本构模型进行数值模拟分析、编制规范和技术规程等提供参考。最后,对今后进一步开展ECC力学性能研究、建立本构模型提出展望。     

Evaluation of the consistency of fiber reinforced cementitious composites

The rheological properties of fresh concrete, mortar or cement paste are among the most important parameters when cementitious building materials are placed. New material designs, like high or ultrahigh performance concretes, include the addition of a high volume of fibers to the fresh mix influencing its workability properties. However, the analysis of the rheological properties of fiber reinforced cementitious composites is difficult. Conventional methods mostly do not apply, especially when a high fiber content and relatively stiff mixtures are used. For this reason, a new method was developed to evaluate the workability of fiber reinforced composites. This method was applied to carbon and PVA fiber reinforced high performance composites and was used to optimize the rheological properties of these composites for an application in a centrifugation casting process.     

纤维增强聚丙烯的流变模型探讨

本文通过拉伸状态下的蠕变试验,对玻璃纤维增强聚丙烯的蠕变曲线进行了测定,确定了材料的流变模型和有关方程,求得了各个流变参数;进一步讨论了纤维含量、温度对材料的流变模型及其参数的影响,对材料的使用具有一定的指导意义.     

Development of engineered cementitious composites with limestone powder and blast furnace slag

Nowadays limestone powder and blast furnace slag (BFS) are widely used in concrete as blended materials in cement. The replacement of Portland cement by limestone powder and BFS can lower the cost and enhance the greenness of concrete, since the production of these two materials needs less energy and causes less CO₂ emission than Portland cement. Moreover, the use of limestone powder and BFS improves the properties of fresh and hardened concrete, such as workability and durability. Engineered cementitious composites (ECC) is a class of ultra ductile fiber reinforced cementitious composites, characterized by high ductility, tight crack width control and relatively low fiber content. The limestone powder and BFS are used to produce ECC in this research. The mix proportion is designed experimentally by adjusting the amount of limestone powder and BFS, accompanied by four-point bending test and uniaxial tensile test. This study results in an ECC mix proportion with the Portland cement content as low as 15% of powder by weight. This mixture, at 28 days, exhibits a high tensile strain capacity of 3.3%, a tight crack width of 57 μm and a moderate compressive strength of 38 MPa. In order to promote a wide use of ECC, it was tried to simplify the mixing of ECC with only two matrix materials, i.e. BFS cement and limestone powder, instead of three matrix materials. By replacing Portland cement and BFS in the aforementioned ECC mixture with BFS cement, the ECC with BFS cement and limestone powder exhibits a tensile strain capacity of 3.1%, a crack width of 76 μm and a compressive strength of 40 MPa after 28 days of curing.     

Mechanical behavior of hybrid steel-fiber self-consolidating concrete: Materials and structural aspects

This work presents the preliminary results of an experimental investigation on the mechanical behavior of self-consolidating concrete reinforced with hybrid steel fibers in the material and structural scale. Straight and hooked end steel fibers with different lengths and diameters were used as reinforcement in fiber volume fractions of 1.0 and 1.5%. In the fresh state the concrete was characterized using the slump flow, L-box and V-funnel tests. To determine the effect of the hybrid reinforcement on the plastic viscosity and shear yield stress a parallel plate rheometer was used. Following, the mechanical response was measured under tension and bending tests. In the flexural test, the movement of the neutral axis was experimentally determined by strain-gages attached to compression and tensile surfaces. Furthermore, the mechanical response of the material under bi-axial bending was addressed using the round panel test. During the test the crack opening was measured using three linear variable differential transformers (LVDT’s). The cracking mechanisms were discussed and compared to that obtained under four point bending and direct tension. The obtained results indicated that the fiber hybridization improved the behavior of the composites for low strain and displacement levels increasing the serviceability limit state of the same through the control of the crack width. For large displacement levels the use of the longer fibers led to a higher toughness but with an expressive crack opening. Due to its structural redundancy the round panel test allowed the formation of a multiple cracking pattern which was not observed in the four point beam tests. Finally, the obtained material’s properties were used in a nonlinear finite element model to simulate the round panel test. The simulation reasonably agreed with the experimental test data.     

聚乙烯醇纤维增强水泥复合材料板的冲切性能

利用MTS试验机对聚乙烯醇纤维(PVA)/水泥复合材料板进行准静态冲切试验,研究了不同PVA纤维掺量对其破坏形态和承载力的影响。结果表明:掺入PVA纤维能够将水泥基板的破坏形态由脆性破坏转为延性破坏。PVA/水泥复合材料板的冲切极限荷载和耗能能力均随PVA纤维掺量增加而增大,其中耗能能力的增大更显著。进一步采用Instron 落锤冲击系统对PVA纤维体积分数为2vol%的PVA/水泥复合材料板进行动力冲切试验,研究冲切速度(2.0~4.2 m/s)对PVA/水泥复合材料板的破坏形态、初裂荷载、极限荷载、初始刚度及耗能性能的影响。结果表明:与准静态试验相比,冲切荷载作用下PVA/水泥复合材料板的极限荷载增大,而耗能减少;此外相对初裂荷载和耗能,极限荷载的冲切速度相关性最显著。基于上述结果,构建了纤维增强水泥复合材料四线型拉伸本构模型,并通过反算模型和塑性铰线方法对纤维增强水泥复合材料板的冲切力学性能进行模拟,并得到材料的本构参数。本研究可以为PVA/水泥复合材料的抗冲切设计提供技术支撑。      

Self compacting concrete from uncontrolled burning of rice husk and blended fine aggregate

This paper presents an experimental study on the development of normal strength Self compacting concrete (SCC) from uncontrolled burning of rice husk ash (RHA) as a partial replacement to cement and blended fine aggregate whilst maintaining satisfactory properties of SCC. Experiments on the fresh and hardened state properties have been carried out on RHA based SCC from uncontrolled burning. The dosages of RHA are limited to 0%, 20%, 30% and 40% by mass of the total cementitious material in the concrete. The experiments on fresh state properties investigate the filling ability, the passing ability and the segregation resistance of concrete. The experiments on hardened state properties investigate the compressive and the splitting tensile strengths. The water absorption level of the concrete with changing RHA levels has also been monitored. The experimental studies indicate that RHA based SCC developed from uncontrolled burning has a significant potential for use when normal strength is desired.     

Flexural performance of layered ECC-concrete composite beam

The pseudo strain-hardening behavior of fiber reinforced engineered cementitious composites (ECC) is a desirable characteristic for it to act as a substitute for concrete to suppress brittle failure. The use of ECC in the industry is, however, limited by its high cost. To achieve higher cost/performance ratio, ECC can be strategically applied in parts of a structure that is under relatively high stress. In this paper, layered ECC-concrete beams subjected to flexural load are investigated from both theoretical and experimental aspects. Four-point bending tests are performed on beam members with ECC layer at its tensile side. The application of ECC layer leads to increase in both the flexural strength and ductility, and the degree of improvement is found to increase with the ECC thickness. A semi-analytical approach for modeling the flexure behavior of layered ECC-concrete beams is also developed. In the model, the stress–crack width relation of both concrete and ECC are employed as fundamental constitutive relationships. The model and experimental results are found to be in good agreement with one another. Simulation with the model shows that when the ECC thickness goes beyond a certain critical value, both the flexural strength and ductility (reflected by crack mouth opening and crack length at ultimate load) will significantly increase. The critical ECC thickness is hence an important design parameter, and it can be determined with the theoretical approach developed in the present work.     

Mechanical evolution of concrete during setting

This paper deals with the rheological behaviour of fresh concrete during setting. An experimental non-destructive device based on the propagation of acoustic waves (compression and shear waves) at low frequency (20Hz–800Hz) is used to continuously characterise the setting and hardening of hydraulic concrete. The results are presented for various concrete formulations involving various initial temperatures and water/cement ratios. The characteristics of wave propagation (velocities, damping coefficients,...) enable to monitor material setting and hardening phases. By means of an inverse analysis, the evolution of rheological parameters is presented from the fluid to the solid state. It is shown that the mechanical evolution of fresh concrete exhibits a characteristic time (τ). The wave velocity presented as a function of normalized time (t/τ) follows a master curve which depends only slightly on the formulations tested.     

混杂纤维增强应变硬化水泥基复合材料的拉伸本构关系

钢纤维与聚乙烯醇纤维混杂增强应变硬化水泥基复合材料(SF-PVA/SHCC)的力学性能研究是近年来的热点问题之一,但目前依然欠缺能够完整描述SF-PVA/SHCC拉伸本构关系的理论模型。本文基于混凝土断裂力学和细观力学理论,通过考虑拉伸应力-应变曲线软化段及SF-PVA混杂纤维对SHCC拉伸性能的影响,提出一种新的可适用于SF-PVA/SHCC材料的单轴拉伸本构模型。为了验证模型的有效性,开展了SF-PVA/SHCC单轴拉伸性能试验,分析了纤维种类和掺量对SHCC拉伸强度、拉伸应变及拉伸韧性的影响。通过与试验数据对比发现,本文所提出的拉伸本构模型可以较好地预测SF-PVA/SHCC的拉伸应力-应变关系。      

Investigation on the influence of granular packing on the flow properties of cementitious suspensions

Fresh concrete can be considered as a suspension of grains of various sizes in a continuous fluid phase. The rheological properties of fresh concrete greatly depend on the physical factors, chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the fine components. Interparticle interactions occur during flow and modify the apparent rheological behaviour. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the rheological behaviour of cementitious suspensions with respect to particle packing is required. The objective of this study is to characterise the interrelationship between the flow properties and the particle packing density of the cementitious suspensions. The experimental investigation included Puntke tests for determining the packing density, and rheological tests that were performed in a rheometer for the characterisation of cement and silica fume (C + SF) as well as cement and fly ash (C + FA) mixtures. The effect of the water to powder ratio (w/p ratio) and the packing density on the flow properties of the cementitious suspensions was studied. From the study, it was observed that a good correlation exists between the w/p ratio and the yield value (g) for both C + SF and C + FA mixtures. The packing density shows a marked influence on the value of g for both mixtures, but has less influence on the value of plastic viscosity (h) for C + FA mixture.     

Rheology of semi-solid fresh cement pastes and mortars in orifice extrusion

Short fiber-reinforced semi-solid fresh cement pastes and mortars, tailored for extrusion, have much lower water-to-binder ratio and higher viscosity than normal cement pastes or mortars. The rheology of these pastes or mortars cannot be characterized by traditional rheology test methods suitable for normal fresh cement pastes or mortars with much greater water-to-binder ratio and lower viscosity. In this paper, orifice extrusion is employed to calibrate rheology of the semi-solid fresh cement mortar. An analytical model is developed for orifice extrusion of semi-solid pastes and mortars obeying a rigid-viscoplastic constitutive relationship, von-Mises yield criterion and the associated flow rule. Orifice extrusion results are interpreted using the analytical model and the established experiment data interpretation method, and the associated rheological parameters are derived for the semi-solid fresh cement mortar. This study provides a simple analytical model, together with experiment and data interpretation methods, for characterizing the complex intrinsic rheological behavior of semi-solid fresh cement pastes or mortars.     

Numerical investigation on steel fibre reinforced cementitious composite panels subjected to high velocity impact loading

Steel fibre reinforced cementitious composite (SFRCC) panels are numerically investigated for their performances under high velocity impact of short projectiles. Numerical responses are obtained using advanced constitutive material model of Riedel–Hiermaier–Thoma (RHT) for cementitious materials and adopting appropriate modelling techniques. Effects of steel fibre volume and the thickness of panels on the impact performance are mainly highlighted in this paper. Various characteristics phenomenon during impact on cementitious composite panels namely, spalling, cracking, scabbing and perforation, are captured which is a difficult task. Scabbing is likely to occur when tensile stresses at the back face of the panel exceed dynamic tensile strength of the material. Various critical aspects in numerical modelling like boundary conditions, material input parameters, and handling severe distortion of the Lagrangian based finite elements are appropriately explained. Design chart is also developed to determine optimum fibre volume and thickness for an impact energy level up to 2.2 kJ. The numerically predicted impact responses are found to corroborate well with experimental results.     

Influence of purified attapulgite clays on the adhesive properties of cement pastes as measured by the tack test

This study evaluates the influence of small additions of highly-purified attapulgite clays (0.2% and 0.5% addition by mass of cement) on the adhesive properties of cement pastes. Adhesive properties are measured by the tack test, a novel method of evaluating the rheological properties of granular materials. To better understand the results of the tack test as they pertain to cementitious materials, a highly concentrated material that is evolving due to thixotropic rebuilding and hydration, they are supplemented with a measure of the viscoelastic properties over time obtained through low-amplitude oscillatory shear rheometry. The influence of different preshear conditions and resting times (age of paste) on the adhesive properties are determined. Results show the tack test to be a suitable method for obtaining useful information about the adhesive properties and structural evolution of the material in the fresh state.     

高强不锈钢绞线网增强工程水泥基复合材料受拉应力-应变关系

为了研究高强不锈钢绞线网增强工程水泥基复合材料(Engineered cementitious composites,EEC)的受拉性能,考虑高强不锈钢绞线配筋率、ECC抗拉强度、高强不锈钢绞线网增强ECC试件宽度3个影响因素,对设计的27个高强不锈钢绞线网增强ECC试件进行了单轴拉伸试验。试验结果表明,高强不锈钢绞线网增强ECC受拉试件的开裂应力和极限应力随着钢绞线配筋率、ECC抗拉强度的增大而增大;增大试件宽度对试件的开裂应力和极限应力几乎无影响。基于试验结果,提出并建立了高强不锈钢绞线网增强ECC受拉本构模型,推导了开裂应力和极限应力计算公式。经验证,计算结果与试验结果吻合良好,说明所建立的受拉本构模型可准确描述高强不锈钢绞线网增强ECC的受拉应力-应变关系。      

Utility of statistical models in proportioning self-consolidating concrete

In addition to sound material selection, the mix design of self-consolidating concrete requires careful tailoring of mixture constituents to secure a proper balance between contradictory properties necessary for the successful production of such a complex material. Mixture optimization of self-consolidating concrete often requires several trial batches to secure the required characteristics. This paper reviews statistical models developed using a factorial design approach to understand the effect of mixture parameters on key responses, including slump flow, rheological parameters, filling capacity, V-funnel flow time, surface settlement, and compressive strength. The models are valid for mixtures with 0.37 to 0.50 W/CM, 360 to 600 kg/m³ of binder, 240 to 400 l/m³ of coarse aggregate, 0.05 to 0.20% of viscosity-enhancing agent, by mass of water, and 0.3 to 1.1% of high-range water reducer, by mass of binder. Although the predicted response changes with the deviation from material characteristics used in establishing the models, the models remain quite useful in determing the significance of mixture parameters and their interactions on self-consolidating concrete properties. This paper demonstrates the usefulness of the models in establishing trade-offs among mixture parameters necessary for mixture optimization and compares the effect of changes in such parameters on key self consolidating concrete responses. The utility of the models to establish correlation between different workability characteristics useful for quality control is also highlighted.