Bandwidth-based routing protocols in mobile ad hoc networks

In this paper, we propose a high performance routing protocol and a long lifetime routing protocol by considering the fact that the bandwidth between two mobile nodes should be different when distances are different. In the high performance routing protocol, to reduce the number of rerouting times, we take the bandwidth issue into account to choose the path with the capability to transmit the maximum amount of data with the help of the GPS. With exchanging the moving vectors and the coordinates of two adjacent mobile nodes, the possible link lifetime of two adjacent mobile nodes can be predicted. Subsequently, a path with the maximal amount of data transmission can be found. With regard to our proposed long lifetime routing protocol, to maximize the overall network lifetime, we find a path with the maximal remaining power after data transmission. With the link bandwidth and the desired amount of data transmitted, the consumption power is computed to obtain the remaining power of a mobile node. Accordingly, we can choose the path with the maximal predicted remaining power to maximize the overall network lifetime. In the simulation, we compare our high performance routing protocol with the AODV and LAWS in terms of throughput, rerouting (path breakage), and route lifetime. With respect to power consumption, we compare our proposed power-aware routing protocol with the POAD and PAMP in terms of the overall network lifetime and the ration of survival nodes to the all nodes.     

Survey of multipath routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks

This survey investigates multipath routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). The main objectives of multipath routing protocols are to provide reliable communication and to ensure load balancing as well as to improve quality of service (QoS) of MANETs. These multipath protocols are broadly classified into five categories based on their major goals. The goals are to improve delay, provide reliability, reduce overhead, maximize network life and support hybrid routing. Multipath routing protocols address issues such as multiple paths discovery and maintaining these paths. Issues, objectives, performances, advantages and disadvantages of these protocols are investigated and summarized. A checklist is provided as a guideline so that a network designer can choose an appropriate multipath routing protocol to meet the network's application objectives.     

QoS routing with traffic distribution in mobile ad hoc networks

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) follow a unique organizational and behavioral logic. MANETs’ characteristics such as their dynamic topology coupled with the characteristics of the wireless communication medium make Quality of Service provisioning a difficult challenge. This paper presents a new approach based on a mobile routing backbone for supporting Quality of Service (QoS) in MANETs. In real-life MANETs, nodes will possess different communication capabilities and processing characteristics. Hence, we aim to identify those nodes whose capabilities and characteristics will enable them to take part in the mobile routing backbone and efficiently participate in the routing process. Moreover, the route discovery mechanism we developed for the mobile routing backbone dynamically distributes traffic within the network according to current network traffic levels and nodes’ processing loads. Simulation results show that our solution improves network throughput and packet delivery ratio by directing traffic through lowly congested regions of the network that are rich in resources. Moreover, our protocol incurs lower communication overheads than AODV (ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing protocol) when searching for routes in the network.     

Triangle-based routing for mobile ad hoc networks

Routing protocols for Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) have been studied extensively in the past decade. Routing protocols for MANETs can be broadly classified as reactive (on-demand), proactive, hybrid and position-based. Reactive routing protocols are attractive because a route between a source and a destination is established only when it is needed. Such protocols, unlike proactive protocols, do not have high overhead for route maintenance and are especially suitable for networks in which not all nodes communicate frequently. One problem with existing reactive routing protocols is the propagation of redundant route request messages during route discovery. In this paper, we present a low-overhead reactive routing protocol which reduces propagation of redundant route request messages. We also compare its performance with the well-known reactive routing protocol AODV.     

Efficient virtual-backbone routing in mobile ad hoc networks

Since the physical topology of mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) is generally unstable, an appealing approach is the construction of a stable and robust virtual topology or backbone. A virtual backbone can play important roles related to routing and connectivity management. In this paper, the problem of providing such a virtual backbone with low overhead is investigated. In particular, we propose an approach, called virtual grid architecture (VGA), that can be applied to both homogeneous and heterogeneous MANETs. We study the performance tradeoffs between the VGA clustering approach and an optimal clustering based on an integer linear program (ILP) formulation. Many properties of the VGA clustering approach, e.g., VGA size, route length over VGA, and clustering overhead are also studied and quantified. Analytical as well as simulation results show that average route length over VGA and VGA cardinality tend to be close to optimal. The results also show that the overhead of creating and maintaining VGA is greatly reduced, and thus the routing performance is improved significantly. To illustrate, two hierarchical routing techniques that operate on top of VGA are presented and evaluated. Performance evaluation shows that VGA clustering approach, albeit simple, is able to provide more stable (long lifetime) routes, deliver more packets, and accept more calls.     

Gathering-based routing protocol in mobile ad hoc networks

A gathering-based routing protocol (GRP) for mobile ad hoc networks is presented. The idea is to rapidly collect network information at a source node at an expense of a small amount of control overheads. The source node can equip promising routes on the basis of the collected information, thereby continuously transmitting data packets even if the current route is disconnected. It results in achieving fast (packet) transfer delay without unduly compromising on (control) overhead performance.     

移动Ad hoc网络多径路由协议*

给出移动Ad hoc网络多径路由的分类方法,系统地描述了当前各种典型的MANETs多径路由协议,并比较和分析了这些协议的特点及适用情况.最后结合该领域当前的研究现状,指出多径路由协议存在的问题和未来的研究重点.     

Adaptive routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks

Artificial immune systems (AIS) are used for solving complex optimization problems and can be applied to the detection of misbehaviors, such as a fault tolerant. We present novel techniques for the routing optimization from the perspective of the artificial immunology theory. We discussed the bioinspired protocol AntOR and analyze its new enhancements. This ACO protocol based on swarm intelligence takes into account the behavior of the ants at the time of obtaining the food. In the simulation results we compare it with the reactive protocol AODV observing how our proposal improves it according to Jitter, the delivered data packet ratio, throughput and overhead in number of packets metrics.     

Performance study of multiple route dynamic source routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks

Design and analysis of routing protocols are the key issues for a mobile ad hoc network (MANET). The Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol is one of the important on-demand routing protocols. In this paper, we develop a comprehensive analytic model for the performance study of the DSR protocol with multiple routes. Two performance metrics, called probability of a successful data transmission and probability that the multiple routes can support the next data transmission, are introduced. We derive both of the two probabilities for the general case over n multiple routes for the DSR protocol. These analytic results provide insights into the mechanics of the multiple DSR routing protocol. It is also useful for the design and implementation of the on-demand routing for MANET.     

Improving source routing reliability in mobile ad hoc networks

In this paper, we propose a novel on-demand routing protocol called backup source routing (BSR) to establish and maintain backup routes that can be utilized after the primary path breaks. The key advantage of BSR is the reduction of the frequency of route discovery flooding, which is recognized as a major overhead in on-demand protocols. We define a new routing metric, called the route reliability, and use it to provide the basis for the backup path selection. We use a heuristic cost function to develop an analytical model and an approximation method to measure this metric. Various algorithms for our BSR protocol in the route discovery phase and route maintenance phase have been designed based on this cost function. Extensive simulations demonstrated that our routing strategy has two interesting features: 1) in less stressful situations of lower mobility, BSR has similar performance to DSR, 2) in more challenging situations of high mobility, BSR can improve the performance significantly.     

Markovian-based traffic modeling for mobile ad hoc networks

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) show very significant difference with respect to other computer networks due to the presence of extremely large packet loss bursts. The development of protocols for mobile ad hoc networks, especially multimedia protocols, require extensive evaluation either through simulation or real-life tests. Such testing consumes a great amount of resources both in terms of time and trace file sizes. Therefore, finding efficient means of reducing the amount of data that is stored and processed is quite important to accelerate the evaluation of different audio/video streaming applications. If, moreover, we are able to model the loss pattern experienced, we can further accelerate the evaluation process.In this work we propose two models based on hidden Markov chains that are able to grasp both packet arrivals and packet loss patterns in MANETs. A simpler two-state model is proposed to model losses when proactive routing protocols are used, while a more complex three-state model is proposed for reactive routing protocols. We also introduce a new set for packet loss pattern measurements that can be of interest for the evaluation of audio/video streaming applications.Experimental results show that the proposed models can adequately reproduce extremely long packet loss patterns, typical of MANET environments, with a high degree of accuracy. Overall, we find that the proposed models are able to significantly reduce both the simulation time and the trace file sizes required.     

The impact of mobility models on the performance of P2P content discovery protocols over mobile ad hoc networks

One of the challenges over mobile ad-hoc networks is content discovery. P2P content discovery techniques including structured and unstructured can be employed in MANETs by considering its special characteristics and limitations. The most important characteristic of MANETs is the mobility of the nodes which creates a dynamic topology. A novel framework is presented to evaluate the effect of mobility and its models on the resource discovery. By using several metrics, this framework is capable of evaluating the effect of mobility on the underlay structure and subsequent changes on the overlay structure. The results obtained from extensive simulation, presented here, clarify the significant role of the mobility models on the performance of P2P content discovery protocols. These results are supported by mathematical analysis of content discovery protocols.     

Review of multicast routing mechanisms in mobile ad hoc networks

Frequent interactions among the group members of distributed wireless network environment may be facilitated with the help of Mobile Ad Hoc NETworks (MANETs). Some of the group-oriented applications include disaster management, battlefields, audio/video conferencing, e-commerce, e-education, etc. Group communication demands dynamic construction of efficient and reliable multicast routes under user mobility and varying channel conditions. Multicast routing mechanisms in MANETs have been consistently improved by researchers considering various performance measures such as energy efficient route establishment, packet delivery ratio, quicker and faster proactive route recovery, network life time, reliability, Quality of Service (QoS) based on bandwidth, delays, jitters, and security. The paper focuses on most recent reliable and QoS based multicast routing mechanisms that helps in multimedia communication over MANETs. The mechanisms are considered under different topological routing categories such as mesh, tree, zone and hybrid. We provide an overview of existing multicast routing mechanisms based on routing categories and point to directions for future research and development.     

自组网路由协议综述

在分析影响自组网路由协议设计的因素的基础上,对路由协议中的关键技术问题进行了研究和总结,包括路由环路避免、对网络动态性的适应、控制开销、节能问题以及路由协议与定位技术的结合问题。最后指出了目前路由协议研究中存在的问题,如协议需求、协议的评估方法等。     

Dynamic backup routes routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs), which provide data networking without infrastructure, represent one kind of wireless networks. A MANET is a self-organizating and adaptive wireless network formed by the dynamic gathering of mobile nodes. Due to the mobility of mobile nodes, the topology of a MANET frequently changes and thus results in the disability of originally on-the-fly data transmission routes. The dynamic properties of MANETs are therefore challenging to protocol design. To cope with the intrinsic properties of MANETs, Dynamic Backup Routes Routing Protocol (DBR²P), a backup node mechanism for quick reconnection during link failures, is proposed in this paper. DBR²P is an on-demand routing protocol and it can set up many routes to reach a destination node in a given period. Even when a link fails, those routes from the source node to the destination node can be analyzed to obtain backup routes to sustain quick reconnection. The information of backup routes can be saved in a specific on-the-route node and enables backup routes to be found immediately in situation regarding disconnection. As a result, DBR²P could more thoroughly improve the quality of routing protocol than those proposed in the past.     

层状 Ad Hoc 网络的信息传播路由算法研究

讨论了层状移动AdHoc网络的一个信息传播路由算法和基于半马尔可夫过程的节点移动跟踪模型,通过该路由算法可以有效地解决层状子网络间的通信和信息交换。通过路由算法得到的中继节点的移动跟踪模型和计算机仿真,分析了层状移动AdHoc网络的传播性能和路由开销,并得出:当 0≤ρ≤ 1时,层状AdHoc网络的传播性能显著地受到移动呼叫率ρ的影响,当ρ>1时,层状AdHoc网络的传播性能主要取决于移动网络的节点总数、节点移动速度和加速度的结论。     

A two-zone hybrid routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks

Recently, an elegant routing protocol, the zone routing protocol (ZRP), was proposed to provide a hybrid routing framework that is locally proactive and globally reactive, with the goal of minimizing the sum of the proactive and reactive control overhead. The key idea of ZRP is that each node proactively advertises its link state over a fixed number of hops, called the zone radius. These local advertisements provide each node with an updated view of its routing zone - the collection of all nodes and links that are reachable within the zone radius. The nodes on the boundary of the routing zone are called peripheral nodes and play an important role in the reactive zone-based route discovery. The main contribution of this work is to propose a novel hybrid routing protocol - the two-zone routing protocol (TZRP) - as a nontrivial extension of ZRP. In contrast with the original ZRP where a single zone serves a dual purpose, TZRP aims to decouple the protocol's ability to adapt to traffic characteristics from its ability to adapt to mobility. In support of this goal, in TZRP each node maintains two zones: a crisp zone and a fuzzy zone. By adjusting the sizes of these two zones independently, a lower total routing control overhead can be achieved. Extensive simulation results show that TZRP is a general MANET routing framework that can balance the trade offs between various routing control overheads more effectively than ZRP in a wide range of network conditions.     

A stable weight-based on-demand routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) consists of a set of mobile hosts that can communicate with each other without the assistance of base stations. In MANETs, the high mobility of mobile nodes is a major reason for link failures. In this paper, we propose a stable weight-based on-demand routing protocol (SWORP) for MANETs. The proposed scheme uses the weight-based route strategy to select a stable route in order to enhance system performance. The weight of a route is decided by three factors: the route expiration time, the error count, and the hop count. Route discovery usually first finds multiple routes from the source node to the destination node. Then the path with the largest weight value for routing is selected. Simulation results show that the proposed SWORP outperforms DSR, AODV, and AODV-RFC, especially in a high mobility environment.     

A learning automata-based fault-tolerant routing algorithm for mobile ad hoc networks

Reliable routing of packets in a Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) has always been a major concern. The open medium and the susceptibility of the nodes of being fault-prone make the design of protocols for these networks a challenging task. The faults in these networks, which occur either due to the failure of nodes or due to reorganization, can eventuate to packet loss. Such losses degrade the performance of the routing protocols running on them. In this paper, we propose a routing algorithm, named as learning automata based fault-tolerant routing algorithm (LAFTRA), which is capable of routing in the presence of faulty nodes in MANETs using multipath routing. We have used the theory of Learning Automata (LA) for optimizing the selection of paths, reducing the overhead in the network, and for learning about the faulty nodes present in the network. The proposed algorithm can be juxtaposed to any existing routing protocol in a MANET. The results of simulation of our protocol using network simulator 2 (ns-2) shows the increase in packet delivery ratio and decrease in overhead compared to the existing protocols. The proposed protocol gains an edge over FTAR, E2FT by nearly 2% and by more than 10% when compared with AODV in terms of packet delivery ratio with nearly 30% faulty nodes in the network. The overhead generated by our protocol is lesser by 1% as compared to FTAR and by nearly 17% as compared to E2FT when there are nearly 30% faulty nodes.     

Cross-layer routing for peer database querying over mobile ad hoc networks

The widespread of mobile ad hoc networking calls for a careful design of network functions in order to meet the application requirements and economize on the limited resources. In this paper we address the problem of distributing query messages among peers in mobile ad hoc networks. We assume that peers are organized in classes. Each peer possesses a local database and can answer queries posed by other peers. Each peer can also pose queries to all the peers belonging to a certain class or classes. Contrary to traditional p2p lookup queries, we are interested in collecting answers from as many peers as possible. We propose a query routing protocol, called CL-QF, which is based on a novel cross-layer design. The purpose of this design is to incorporate application layer specifics (e.g., class information) into the network layer in order to reduce transmissions therefore economize on resources. CL-QF coexists with traditional routing. This synergy minimizes the complexity and signaling of CL-QF while the network is able to seamlessly provide legacy unicast communication. CL-QF manages a reduction of up to ～78% compared to non-cross-layer approaches, such as probabilistic forwarding, without compromising the ability to effectively collect replies.