A computer model for estimating the response of sprinkler links to compartment fires with draft curtains and fusible link-actuated ceiling vents

A computer program, LAVENT, is now available which computes the heating of fusible links due to the presence of a ceiling jet imbedded in an upper layer. An important new feature in this program is that the two-dimensional structure of the ceiling jet is taken into account such that the location of the link beneath the ceiling plays a role in the response of the link. The links can be used to activate ceiling vents such that the effect of venting the upper layer on the ceiling jet may be studied. Additional applications would include the study of upper layer containment through the use of a combination of draft curtains and ceiling vents. The geometry modeled by the program is that of a large compartment enclosed by a combination of walls and draft curtains.     

Effects of buoyancy induced roof ventilation systems for smoke removal in tunnel fires

The present article highlights the performance of natural roof ventilation systems and its effects on tunnel fire flow characteristics. Numerical analysis is performed using Large Eddy Simulations (LES) to predict fire growth rate and smoke movement in tunnel with single and multiple roof openings. The smoke venting performance of ceiling vents are investigated by varying the vent size and fire source locations. The critical parameters such as mass flow rate through ceiling openings, smoke traveling time and fire growth patterns are presented. The ceiling openings are effective in transferring hot gases and reduces the longitudinal smoke velocity. The heat source and ceiling vent locations significantly affects the vent performance and smoke behavior in tunnel. The present results are in good agreement with the experimental results available in literature.     

Unsteady ceiling jet model for large building spaces

This study describes a method for predicting the performance of a ceiling jet in large building spaces. For applying this method to unsteady cases, the terms of the time differential used in the governing equations and the one-dimensional heat transfers to the ceiling are added to the Alpert′s theory. Moreover, some functions such as the friction force acting against the ceiling and the air entrainment rate are refined. In this method, the domains are divided into multiple control volumes by vertical concentric circular boundaries whose center axis is positioned on the fire source. The profile of the ceiling jet is assumed to be Gaussian, and hence, the average velocities, average gas temperatures, and height of the ceiling jet at each boundary are computed sequentially, considering the influence of the heat loss to the ceiling and the dilution by the air entrainment. In this study, the results of this prediction model are compared to Alpert′s and Heskestad′s practical correlations under steady conditions, and the basic performance of the model is confirmed. Then, the predictions of this model are compared with the measurements by performing a fire experiment in a large building space. The gas temperatures are slightly lower for the predicted results than for the measured data; however, the performance of the model is generally promising.     

A two-dimensional numerical investigation of the oscillatory flow behaviour in rectangular fire compartments with a single horizontal ceiling vent

This paper presents a comparison of fire field model predictions with experiment for the case of a fire within a compartment which is vented (buoyancydriven) to the outside by a single horizontal ceiling vent. Unlike previous work, the mathematical model does not employ a mixing ratio to represent vent temperatures but allows the model to predict vent temperatures a priori. The experiment suggests that the flow through the vent produces oscillatory behaviour in vent temperatures with puffs of smoke emerging from the fire compartment. This type of flow is also predicted by the fire field model. While the numerical predictions are in good qualitative agreement with observations, they overpredict the amplitudes of the temperature oscillations within the vent and also the compartment temperatures. The discrepancies are thought to be due to three-dimensional effects not accounted for in this model as well as using standard ‘practices’ normally used by the community with regards to discretization and turbulence models. Furthermore, it is important to note that the use of the turbulence model in a transient mode, as is used here, may have a significant effect on the results. The numerical results also suggest that a linear relationship exists between the frequency of vent temperature oscillation (n) and the heat release rate ( ) of the type , similar to that observed for compartments with two horizontal vents. This relationship is predicted to occur only for heat release rates below a critical value. Furthermore, the vent discharge coefficient is found to vary in an oscillatory fashion with a mean value of 0.58. Below the critical heat release rate the mean discharge coefficient is found to be insensitive to fire size.     

Experimental study based on large-scale smoke propagation fire tests through a horizontal opening connecting two mechanically ventilated compartments

This work describes an experimental study of the flow through a horizontal opening (also referred to as a vent), applicable to specific situations typically encountered in nuclear installations. The configuration consisted of two rooms, which were mechanically ventilated and connected to each other by a horizontal opening, the fire being located in the lower room. The flow was governed by buoyancy due to the heat release from the fire, inertia resulting from the mechanical ventilation, and local momentum from the ceiling jet. Two flow regimes (bi-directional and uni-directional) were encountered depending on the fire power and the ventilation set-up. This study presents 17 large-scale fire tests, investigating the behaviour of the flow at the horizontal opening according to several fire scenario parameters: the fire heat release rate, the fire location, the ventilation configuration and the ventilation flow rate. This range of parameters enabled us to focus on different flow regimes, from pure natural convection (bi-directional) to forced convection (uni-directional). The new set of data obtained, based on detailed flow measurements, offers new insights for understanding the flow and developing sub-models to be used in zone codes.     

Temperature and velocity properties of a ceiling jet impinging on an unconfined inclined ceiling

Understanding the characteristics of ceiling jet flow is important because most fire detectors and suppression devices are designed to operate within the ceiling jet; the increases in temperature and smoke concentration within the ceiling jet become trigger occupants to begin fire-fighting action or to evacuation. A series of pool fire tests was conducted using a flat, unconfined model ceiling with dimensions of 2.5 m (D)×3.0 m (L) and changing the ceiling inclination angle of up to 40°. A single ceiling height is used. Two fire heat release rates were used to evaluate the effects: one with and the other without the flame tip touching the inclined ceiling under a steady-state condition. Maximum temperature and its position were determined based on the measurement using a rake consisting of 0.2-mm-diameter chromel–alumel thermocouples. The maximum velocity and its position were obtained by the particle image velocimetry method. These data were compared with the velocities obtained using a bi-directional flow probe and the relationship between them was clarified. Empirical formulae for the temperature rise and velocity versus the radial distance from the plume impingement point along the steepest run in the upward direction were developed considering the effect of the inclination angle. Variations in the Froude number and the Richardson number with radial distance were clarified with and without the flame tip touching the inclined ceiling.     

Numerical Simulation of Fire Plume-Induced Ceiling Jets Using the Standard k ε Model

The main objective of the present work is an investigation of the accuracy and the reliability of numerical predictions of ceiling jets induced by fire plumes, aiming at practical applications to fire-safety planning. Ceiling jet phenomena are studied numerically using the standard k-ɛ model of turbulence. Computed results are compared with basic experimental data. Of particular interest is the dependence of (a) the computational mesh system, (b) the incompressible or compressible flow assumptions, and (c) initial values of k and ɛ at the inflow on the ceiling jet solutions.     

Experimental studies on fire-induced buoyant smoke temperature distribution along tunnel ceiling

Twelve tests were conducted to study the distribution of smoke temperature along the tunnel ceiling in the one-dimensional spreading phase, two tests in a large-scale tunnel and the other ten in full scale vehicular tunnels. The fire size and the height above the floor, the tunnel section geometry and longitudinal ventilation velocity varied in these tests. Experimental results showed that when the fire size was larger, the smoke temperature below the ceiling was higher, but it decayed faster while traveling down the tunnel. The longitudinal ventilation velocity seemed to take much influence on the smoke temperature decay speed downstream. A “barrier effect” was shown for the smoke temperature distribution of the upstream back layering. The smoke temperatures measured were higher upstream than downstream before the “barrier”, and were much lower and decreased faster along the tunnel ceiling after the “barrier”. The temperature and the traveling velocity of the upstream smoke flow decreased largely when the longitudinal ventilation velocity increased a bit. The dimensionless excess smoke temperature distributions along the tunnel ceiling in all tests fell into good exponential decay. But the decay speed along the tunnel seemed to be much larger in the large-scale tunnel than that in full-scale tunnels. The measured data on ceiling jet temperature decay along the tunnel was compared with predictions of Delichatsios's model, a model built based on small-scale tests, with hydraulic diameter introduced. Results showed that Delichatsisos’ model over estimated the decay speed of ceiling jet temperature for the downstream flow. However, good agreement was achieved between the measured data and the model predictions for the upstream back layering. All the experimental data presented in this paper can be further applied for verification of numerical models, bench-scale results and building new models on ceiling jet temperature distribution.     

顶棚射流扩展火焰长度工程计算模型

运用FDS数值模拟方法,通过不同火源功率、不同火源直径和不同顶棚高度等19种火灾算例,分析了不同模拟工况下顶棚射流横向扩展火焰的发展情况.根据模拟结果,拟合得到顶棚射流横向扩展火焰半径的工程计算模型,并和前人得到的计算模型进行了比较.     

Assessing the Sprinkler Activation Predictive Capability of the BRANZFIRE Fire Model

This paper describes an investigation into the sprinkler response time predictive capability of the BRANZFIRE fire model. A set of 22 fire/sprinkler experiments are simulated where the sprinkler activation time and the heat release rate (HRR) for each individual experiment had been determined. The experiments provided data for use in validating the sprinkler activation prediction algorithms in the BRANZFIRE zone model. A set of base case values were chosen and input files constructed for the simulations. The experiments were then simulated by the fire model using both the NIST/JET ceiling jet and Alpert’s ceiling jet options (which are the two ceiling jet correlations available in the BRANZFIRE zone model). The fire model included a heat transfer calculation for the temperature of the heat sensitive sprinkler element. Different sprinkler operational parameters such as the conduction factor, response time index (RTI) and the sprinkler depth below ceiling were also varied to assess the sensitivity of their effect on the activation time. Results showed that using the NIST/JET ceiling jet algorithm gave a closer prediction of the sprinkler response time in a small room than Alpert’s correlation. This was expected, since the former includes the effect of a hot upper layer while the latter applies to unconfined ceilings. The experiments available for comparison had been conducted inside an enclosure with a developing hot upper layer. The findings also signified that changing the sprinkler operational parameters can change the predicted sprinkler activation time significantly.     

Nonlinear eddy viscosity modeling and experimental study of jet spreading rates

Indoor airflow pattern is strongly influenced by turbulent shear and turbulent normal stresses that are responsible for entrainment effects and turbulence‐driven secondary motion. Therefore, an accurate prediction of room airflows requires reliable modeling of these turbulent quantities. The most widely used turbulence models include RANS‐based models that provide quick solutions but are known to fail in turbulent free shear and wall‐affected flows. In order to cope with this deficiency, this study presents a nonlinear k‐ε turbulence model and evaluates it along with linear k‐ε models for an indoor isothermal linear diffuser jet flow measured in two model rooms using PIV. The results show that the flow contains a free jet near the inlet region and a wall‐affected region downstream where the jet is pushed toward the ceiling by entrainment through the well‐known Coanda effect. The CFD results show that an accurate prediction of the entrainment process is very important and that the nonlinear eddy viscosity model is able to predict the turbulence‐driven secondary motions. Furthermore, turbulence models that are calibrated for high Reynolds free shear layer flows were not able to reproduce the measured velocity distributions, and it is suggested that the model constants of turbulence models should be adjusted before they are used for room airflow simulations.     

Scale similarity on ceiling jet flow

In this study, empirical formulae previously derived for describing the decrease in temperature rise, the decrease in velocity, the thermal boundary layer thickness, the momentum boundary layer thickness, the Gaussian thermal thickness, and the Gaussian momentum thickness of a ceiling jet flowing upward along the steepest run of an inclined ceiling were applied to a full-scale scenario. The coefficients in these formulae were determined through a series of pool fire tests conducted using a flat, unconfined model ceiling with dimensions of 2.5 m×3.0 m, and fixed ceiling clearance of 1.0 m. To verify the applicability of the developed formulae to actual fires, another series of pool fire tests were conducted using a flat, unconfined full-scale ceiling with dimensions of 7.0 m×14.0 m and a maximum ceiling clearance of 3.0 m. The proposed formulae were confirmed to be applicable to a full-scale scenario and to describe the ceiling jet flow accurately.     

Heat of combustion in spreading wood crib fires with application to ceiling jets

Responding to a challenge raised with respect to a 1989 revision of a 1979 paper on the ceiling jet of t-squared fires, we have measured the heat of combustion in the growth phase of wood cribs made of sugar pine, the test fuel in the original work, needed to generalize the ceiling jet measurements to any combustible. The present determination of the chemical heat of combustion in the growth phase, 14.1 kJ/g, is a little higher than adopted in 1989 (12.5 kJ/g, from wood sample burning with diffusion flame) but still considerably lower than employed in 1979 (20.9 kJ/g, from oxygen bomb calorimetry). More importantly, the convective heat of combustion was measured as 11.5 kJ/g, which has been employed to update the ceiling jet equations for temperature and velocity in t-squared fires. An explanation is offered for the varying, and often higher than expected ceiling-level temperatures measured with thermocouples directly over the fire in the original experiments, suggesting that both plume lean and thermocouple insertion depth may have affected the indicated temperature.     

Numerical studies on evaluation of smoke control system of underground metro rail transport system in India having jet injection system: A case study

The rail based urban transport system is being developed for national capital of India, New Delhi. The smoke control using ventilation in case of fire inside the tunnel, similar to Delhi Metro corridor has been investigated using computational fluid dynamics technique. A section of tunnel having dimensions 400 m long, 5.5 m wide and 6 m high is considered for simulation. The analysis has been carried out by assuming a variable fire source with a peak heat release rate (HRR) of 16 MW, located at the center of the tunnel. Ventilation ducts are located in the ceiling near the tunnel portals and are inclined at 10 degrees to the plane of the ceiling through which fans discharge air. The influence of the fire HRR curve slope on the smoke flow dynamics in a realistic tunnel model fitted with jet injection type longitudinal ventilation system has been investigated. In case of fire two cases are studied: (1) fans activated immediately after detection, (2) fans activated at delayed times to take into account the response time for the fans to achieve its maximum speed. The velocity of supply and exhaust fans necessary to remove smoke in 30 s from the upstream direction is determined. The velocities of fan required to produce desired critical velocity in the longitudinal direction for different HRR of fire is predicted.     

Using FDS to Simulate Smoke Layer Interface Height in a Simple Atrium

This study examines the possible effects of various make-up air supply arrangements and velocities in an atrium smoke management system. Variations include velocities ranging from 0.5 to 3.0 m/s. The arrangement of make-up air supply injection points include symmetrically located vents placed low in the spaced, an array of vents distributed from the floor to the ceiling, and asymmetrically located vents. Fire Dynamic Simulator version 4.06 is applied to simulate ten scenarios in a 30.5 m cubical domain with a fire source simulating a stack of pallets with an approximate peak heat release rate of 5 MW. Results show that make-up air supply velocities should be diffused such that little to no velocity effects reach the fire. Make-up air should be supplied to the fire symmetrically for the best chance of not disturbing the fire plume. Disturbing the fire and smoke plume results in a significant increase in the smoke production rate, as evidenced by a deeper smoke layer.     

The use of impulse ventilation for smoke control in underground car parks

Impulse ventilation systems (IVS) are used to provide ventilation for covered car parks and to control the smoke in the event of fire. In this paper the interaction between the fire ceiling jet and the flow driven by jet fans is studied using CFD simulations. A sensitivity analysis considering important parameters as position and intensity of fire source, transversal distance between jet fans, restriction of exhaust flow rate and dimension of car park exhaust opening is carried out and rules for the design of 50 N thrust jet fans are deduced. An analytical model for the flow field near the ceiling is developed and compared with CFD simulations. This model is intended to support a first approach of the design of IVS.     

隧道列车火灾的顶棚射流平均温度分布

列车着火并停留在隧道内时,容易产生夹带火焰的顶棚射流.通过建立列车中部着火时火焰顶棚射流的一维单元控制体模型,考虑火焰烟气与隧道壁面和列车壁面之间的换热,导出列车火灾火焰顶棚射流平均温度的迭代计算公式.并通过隧道列车火灾的1:8缩尺模型实验和数值模拟计算,确定了迭代公式中的待定系数.由该公式经过迭代运算后得到的平均温度...     

Numerical investigation of smoke exhaust mechanism in a gymnasium under fire scenarios

The Fire Dynamics Simulator code is used to investigate the smoke filling process in a large building. Initially, the model is used to simulate the smoke descending process in an atrium under fire scenarios. By comparing with experimental data, reasonable model constants of _Cs$C_{\mathrm{s}}$ and _Prt${\mathit{Pr}}_{\mathrm{t}}$ are determined for simulating smoke movement in buildings with large space. The performance of different smoke exhaust methods in a real gymnasium is then studied. Smoke filling processes are investigated under different natural and enhanced smoke exhaust methods. Simulated results show that natural smoke exhaust method is preferred when the smoke exhaust vents are located at the ceiling of the gymnasium. On the other hand, when the smoke exhaust vents are located on the walls of the gymnasium, enhanced smoke exhaust methods are preferred. In addition, the influence of ceiling temperature in the gymnasium on the smoke spreading process is presented in this paper. Results indicate that high ceiling temperature slows down the so-called smoke ceiling jet moving horizontally at the ceiling, whereas low ceiling temperature accelerates such smoke ceiling jets.     

On the maximum smoke temperature under the ceiling in tunnel fires

Maximum smoke temperature under the ceiling in a tunnel fire was studied experimentally and numerically. Full-scale burning tests in two vehicular tunnels of length 3.27 and 1.032 km with and without operating the longitudinal ventilation system were carried out. Smoke temperatures at selected positions under the ceiling were measured under different longitudinal ventilation velocities. Two different pool fires of 1.6 and 3 MW were set up. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations with Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) version 3.10 were carried out on those scenarios. CFD predicted smoke temperatures were firstly verified by comparing with the measured values at those selected positions, and then compared with the calculated values using the empirical equation due to Kurioka et al. Fairly good agreement was achieved, though the slope of the tunnel was not considered in this empirical equation.