Fabrication and evaluation of some mechanical and electrical properties of jute‐biomass based hybrid composites

Hybrid composites based on bisphenol‐C‐formaldehyde resin and jute mat with rice, wheat, sugar cane, and jamun husks have been fabricated at 150°C under 30.4 MPa pressure for 2 h. The resin content in composites was 50% of fibers. Tensile strength, flexural strength, electric strength, and volume resistivity of hybrid composites have been evaluated and compared with those of jute‐bisphenol‐C‐formaldehyde composites. It is observed that the tensile strength of composites is found to decrease by 53–72%, which is mainly due to random orientation of sandwiched fibers. Flexural strength has increased by 53–153% except jute–rice husk composite for which it is decreased by 26%. A little change in dielectric breakdown strength (1.89–2.11 kV/mm) is found but volume resistivity of Jute–wheat husk and Jute–jamun husk composites has improved by 437–197% and it is slightly decreased(2.3–25.2%) for the remaining two composites. Thus, hybrid composites possess good mechanical and electrical properties signifying their importance in low strength and light weight engineering applications as well as low cost housing units such as partition and hard boards. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 100: 1754–1758, 2006     

Mechanical properties of epoxy‐based hybrid composites containing glass beads and α,ω‐oligo(butylmethacrylate)diol

A novel phase‐separating liquid rubber based on oligo(alkylmethacrylate) in combination with microglass beads was used to toughen an anhydride‐cured epoxy resin. The resulting hybrid composites, containing 5 or 10 wt % of oligomeric liquid rubber and between 10 and 60 wt % glass beads as well as composites containing corresponding amounts of glass beads but no liquid rubber, were characterized mechanically. The experimental data show that modification with glass beads results in increased stiffness and toughness compared to the neat resin but reduces tensile strength. Compared to the glass bead–filled composites, additional modification with methacrylic rubber leads to a further increase in toughness and also to an increase in strength but does not alter stiffness and glass‐transition temperature. This synergistic behavior is explained by the fact that the rubber separates preferably on the surface of the glass bead, forming a core–shell morphology during curing. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 88: 1040–1048, 2003     

Influence of ionic liquid on the polymer–filler coupling and mechanical properties of nano‐silica filled elastomer

The natural rubber (NR) nanocomposites were fabricated by filling ionic liquid (1‐allyl‐3‐methyl‐imidazolium chloride, AMI) modified nano‐silica (nSiO₂) in NR matrix through mechanical mixing and followed by a cure process. Based on the measurements of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), solid state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy, it was proved that AMI could interact with nSiO₂ through hydrogen bonds. With the increase of AMI content, the curing rate of nSiO₂/NR increased. The results of bound rubber and dynamic mechanical properties showed that polymer–filler interaction increased with the modification of nSiO₂. Morphology studies revealed that modification of nSiO₂ resulted in a homogenous dispersion of nSiO₂ in NR matrix. AMI modified nSiO₂ could greatly enhance the tensile strength and tear strength of nSiO₂/NR nanocomposites. Compared to unmodified nSiO₂/NR nanocomposite, the tensile strength of AMI modified nSiO₂/NR nanocomposite increased by 102%. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2017 , 134, 44478.     

Effect of difunctional acids on the physicochemical,thermal, and mechanical properties of polyester polyol‐based polyurethane coatings

Polyester polyol (PP)‐based polyurethanes (PUs) consisting of two difunctional acids [1,4‐cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid (CHDA) and 1,6‐adipic acid (AA)] and also two diols [1,4‐cyclohexanedimethanol (CHDM) and 1,6‐hexanediol (HDO)] were synthesized by a two‐step procedure with a variable feed ratio of CHDA to AA but fixed ratio of CHDM and HDO. The prepared PPs and/or PUs were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy. The effects of difunctional acids on the thermal, mechanical, and dynamic mechanical thermal properties of PPs or PU films were investigated by thermogravimetry analysis, differential thermogravimetry and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis. The results show that PP exhibits a lowest viscosity with the mole fraction of CHDA and AA at 3 : 7 whereas it delivers a lowest melting point with the mole fraction at 9 : 1. After PPs being cross‐linked by isocyanate trimers, the impact resistance, shear strength and glass transition temperature increase the mixed‐acid formulations with increasing the content of CHDA. In detail, the resultant PU almost simultaneously exhibits the best mechanical and thermal properties when the mole fraction of CHDA and AA is kept constant at 9 : 1, thus giving rise to a high glass transition temperature of 56.4°C and a onset decomposition temperature of 350°C, and also delivering a balanced toughness and hardness with an impact resistance of 100 J/g and storage modulus as high as 10⁹ Pa. This path for synthesis of PP‐based PU provides a design tool for high performance polymer coatings. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015 , 132, 41246.     

Mechanical properties and morphology of nylon‐6 hybrid composites

In this investigation, the influence of filler type and filler content on the mechanical properties of nylon‐6 is investigated. The mineral fillers were selected on the basis of their shape and size: flake‐like kaolin and talc, spherical glass beads or fibrous wollastonite. These fillers were added to nylon‐6 individually or in mixed combinations. They were added at different percentages varying between 10 and 30% w/w. Samples of the composites were prepared by the injection moulding process. Uniaxial tensile, Izod impact and flexural tests were carried out. Tensile strength, elongation at break, modulus of elasticity and impact energy were obtained and compared. In case of single fillers the results showed that the tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and their flexural values for nylon‐6 composite improve with the increase in filler content while mixed compounds showed no significant changes above 15% + 15% w/w filler. However, for single and mixed filler up to 10% w/w, the impact strength and maximum elongation at break showed significant decrease. In general, the maximum improvement in mechanical the addition of 10–15% w/w filler. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Mechanical properties study of micro‐ and nano‐hydroxyapatite reinforced ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene composites

This is a comparative study between ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) reinforced with micro‐ and nano‐hydroxyapatite (HA) under different filler content. The micro‐ and nano‐HA/UHMWPE composites were prepared by hot‐pressing method, and then compression strength, ball indentation hardness, creep resistance, friction, and wear properties were investigated. To explore mechanisms of these properties, differential scanning calorimetry, infrared spectrum, wettability, and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry analysis were carried out on the samples. The results demonstrated that UHMWPE reinforced with micro‐ and nano‐HA would improve the ball indentation hardness, compression strength, creep resistance, wettability, and wear behavior. The mechanical properties for both micro‐ and nano‐HA/UHMWPE composites were comparable with pure UHMWPE. The mechanical properties of nano‐HA/UHMWPE composites are better compared with micro‐HA/UHMWPE composites and pure UHMWPE. The optimum filler quantity of micro‐ and nano‐HA/UHMWPE composites is found to be at 15 wt % and 10 wt %, separately. The micro‐ and nano‐HA/UHMWPE composites exhibit a low friction coefficient and good wear resistance at this content. The worn surface of HA/UHMWPE composites shows the wear mechanisms changed from furrow and scratch to surface rupture and delamination when the weight percent of micro‐ and nano‐HA exceed 15 wt % and 10 wt %. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 42869.     

Improved shape memory effects in multiwalled‐carbon‐nano‐tube reinforced thermosetting polyurethane composites

Shape memory thermosetting polyurethane (SMPU) composites containing different amount of multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) ranging from 0 to 0.250 phr were prepared. The shape memory behavior, tensile stress, and recovery stress were determined by using conventional thermomechanical cycle; however, the modified thermomechanical cycle designated as progressive stretch–relax–stretch (PSRS) cycle was also employed to create shape memory effects in studied composites. The test was carried out in water bath which was equipped with an electric heater, temperature controller, and tensile stress and strain measuring setup. The recovery and tensile stresses both were showing higher values for PSRS samples as compared with conventional samples. Loading of MWCNT improved the recovery stress of SMPU, thereby confirming reinforcing effect. The maximum recovery stress of 2.17 MPa for 0.188 phr MWCNT loading was observed as compared with 1.09 MPa of unreinforced SMPU specimen. The recovery time was also improved on reinforcement as demonstrated in this article. The morphology of fractured surface and degree of dispersion of MWCNT was studied using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope. The impact on glass transition temperature was also observed for MWCNT reinforcement on SMPU, which depends on the degree of dispersion and loading of MWCNT in the specimen. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2017 , 134, 44389.     

Plasticization of nano‐CaCO3 in polystyrene/nano‐CaCO3 composites

The shear rheological properties of polystyrene (PS)/nano‐CaCO₃ composites were studied to determine the plasticization of nano‐CaCO₃ to PS. The composites were prepared by melt extrusion. A poly(styrene–butadiene–styrene) triblock copolymer (SBS), a poly(styrene–isoprene–styrene) triblock copolymer (SIS), SBS‐grafted maleic anhydride (SBS–MAH), and SIS‐grafted maleic anhydride were used as modifiers or compatibilizers. Because of the weak interaction between CaCO₃ and the PS matrix, the composites with 1 and 3 phr CaCO₃ loadings exhibited apparently higher melt shear rates under the same shear stress with respect to the matrix polymer. The storage moduli for the composites increased with low CaCO₃ concentrations. The results showed that CaCO₃ had some effects on the compatibility of PS/SBS (or SBS–MAH)/CaCO₃ composites, in which SBS could effectively retard the movement of PS chain segments. The improvement of compatibility, due to the chemical interaction between CaCO₃ and the grafted maleic anhydride, had obvious effects on the rheological behavior of the composites, the melt shear rate of the composites decreased greatly, and the results showed that nano‐CaCO₃ could plasticize the PS matrix to some extent. Rheological methods provided an indirect but useful characterization of the composite structure. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2006     

Physico‐mechanical properties of nano‐polystyrene‐decorated graphene oxide–epoxy composites

Nano‐polystyrene (nPS)‐decorated graphene oxide (GO) hybrid nanostructures were successfully synthesized using stepwise microemulsion polymerization, and characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction (XRD), field‐emission scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. XRD and FTIR spectra revealed the existence of a strong interaction between nPS and GO, which implied that the polymer chains were successfully grafted onto the surface of the GO. The nPS‐decorated GO hybrid nanostructures were compounded with epoxy using a hand lay‐up technique, and the effect of the nPS‐decorated GO on the mechanical, thermal and surface morphological properties of the epoxy matrix was investigated using a universal tensile machine, Izod impact tester, thermogravimetric analysis and contact angle measurements with a goniometer. It was observed that in the epoxy matrix, GO improved the compatibility. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of silk nano‐disc dispersion on mechanical,thermal, and barrier properties of poly(lactic acid) based bionanocomposites

Exacerbated environmental concerns about petroleum‐based plastics provide the impetus to foster sustainable poly(lactic acid) (PLA) based food packaging. Nonetheless, PLA has its foibilities such as its brittleness, higher gas permeability, and slow crystallization. With the intent to mitigate the above shortcomings, we report a maiden effort for the fabrication of PLA/crystalline silk nano‐discs (CSNs) based bionanocomposites by melt‐extrusion for high temperature engineering and food packaging applications. Acid hydrolyzed silk fibroin from muga silk (Antheraea assama) yields CSNs, a crystalline hydrophobic discotic nanofiller with diameter of ～50 nm and thickness ～3 nm. At optimum loadings of 1 wt % uniform dispersed CSNs with percolated network structures covering the entire matrix can be seen. Due to enhanced crystal nucleation density, water vapor, and oxygen permeability reduced by ～30% and ～70%, respectively. Enhancement in toughness, percentage elongation, and tensile strength up to ～65%, ～40%, and ～10%, respectively, is obtained. Onset of thermal decomposition for the PLA/CSN improved ～10 °C, confirming the role of CSN in enhancing melt stability. Accordingly, this investigation renders a novel non‐invasive approach for increasing the crystallinity with improvement in thermomechanical and barrier properties which make this bionanocomposite, a promising candidate for food packaging applications. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018 , 135, 46671.     

Electrolytically exfoliated graphene–polylactide‐based bioplastic with high elastic performance

This work reports an innovative way to prepare biopolymer composite by incorporating graphene (GP) synthesized from electrolytic exfoliation into biodegradable polymer blend (polylactide/epoxidized palm oil: PLA/EPO) based on melt‐blending method and studies their physical properties for food packaging and related applications. Multilayer GP structure synthesized by electrolytic exfoliation is confirmed by transmission electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy, whereas homogeneous GP incorporation in PLA/EPO is verified by scanning electron microscopy and X‐ray diffraction. From thermogravimetric analysis and heat deformation temperature (HDT) studies, the decomposition and HDTs of PLA/EPO/GP composites are higher than those of PLA/EPO but are lower than those of pristine PLA and tend to decrease with increasing GP content because of thermal conductivity effect. From standard tensile test, loading of GP in PLA/EPO at an optimal concentration of 0.6 wt % results in higher elongation at break by as much as 52%. The observed additional elongation under a given tension and the corresponding lower tensile strength/Young's modulus may be attributed to lower binding force of materials in the composite because of the presence of relatively weak GP–PLA/EPO interfaces. Moreover, oxygen permeability is found to decrease with increasing GP contents and oxygen permeability is reduced by 40.33% at the GP loading concentration of 0.6 wt %. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015 , 132, 41439.     

Synergistic reinforcement of NBR by hybrid filler system including organoclay and nano‐CaCO3

Rubber nanocomposites containing one type of nanofiller are common and are widely established in the research field. In this study, nitrile rubber (NBR) based ternary nanocomposites containing modified silicate (Cloisite 30B) and also nano‐calcium carbonate (nano‐CaCO₃) were prepared using a laboratory internal mixer (simple melt mixing). Effects of the hybrid filler system (filler phase have two kind of fillers) on the cure rheometry, morphology, swelling, and mechanical and dynamic–mechanical properties of the NBR were investigated. Concentration of nano‐CaCO₃ [0, 5, 10, and 15 parts per one hundred parts of rubber by weight (phr)] and organoclay (0, 3, and 6 phr) in NBR was varied. The microstructure and homogeneity of the compounds were confirmed by studying the dispersion of nanoparticles in NBR via X‐ray diffraction and field emission scanning electron microscopy. Based on the results of morphology and mechanical properties, the dual‐filler phase nanocomposites (hybrid nanocomposite) have higher performance in comparison with single‐filler phase nanocomposites. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015 , 132, 42744.     

Preparation and properties of MWCNTs/poly(acrylonitrile‐ styrene‐butadiene)/epoxy hybrid composites

Poly(acrylonitrile‐styrene‐butadiene) (ABS) was used to modify diglycidyl ether of bisphenol‐A (DGEBA) type epoxy resin, and the modified epoxy resin was used as the matrix for making multiwaled carbon tubes (MWCNTs) reinforced composites and were cured with diamino diphenyl sulfone (DDS) for better mechanical and thermal properties. The samples were characterized by using infrared spectroscopy, pressure volume temperature analyzer (PVT), thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA), dynamic mechanical analyzer (DMA), thermo mechanical analyzer (TMA), universal testing machine (UTM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Infrared spectroscopy was employed to follow the curing progress in epoxy blend and hybrid composites by determining the decrease of the band intensity due to the epoxide groups. Thermal and dimensional stability was not much affected by the addition of MWCNTs. The hybrid composite induces a significant increase in both impact strength (45%) and fracture toughness (56%) of the epoxy matrix. Field emission scanning electron micrographs (FESEM) of fractured surfaces were examined to understand the toughening mechanism. FESEM micrographs reveal a synergetic effect of both ABS and MWCNTs on the toughness of brittle epoxy matrix. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013     

Synthetic Ni‐talc as filler for producing polyurethane nanocomposites

New synthetic Ni‐talc was used as filler in the synthesis of polyurethane (PU) nanocomposites by in situ polymerization and to emphasize the contribution of the new material compared with natural talc. Good dispersion of Ni‐talc was supported by homogeneous green coloration observed in the polymer matrix. X‐ray diffraction (XRD) analyses indicate the intercalation of polymeric matrix into the filler layers by the increase in d₀₀₁‐spacing value of the Ni‐talc for the nanocomposites when compared to the pristine filler. The nanocomposites obtained with synthetic talc showed an improvement in the crystallization temperature and in thermal stability when compared to pure PU and the composite obtained with natural talc. The young modulus of PU/talc materials containing both Ni‐talc and natural talc were slight higher than pure PU. As shown by scanning electron microscope (SEM), Ni‐talc fillers were well dispersed into the polymeric matrix probably due to the good compatibility of both phases filler/polymer mainly achieved by the filler OH interaction with the urethane group of the polymeric chain. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015 , 132, 41854.     

Enhanced thermal conductivity and mechanical properties of hybrid MoS2/h‐BN polyurethane nanocomposites

Nanocomposites based on molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂), hexagonal boron nitride (h‐BN) and hybrid MoS₂/h‐BN nanofillers with different wt % in elastomeric polyurethane (PU) were studied with respect to their microstructure, thermal and mechanical properties. Tensile tests showed increases up to 80% in Young`s modulus for both h‐BN and hybrid MoS₂/h‐BN composites. These results agree with dynamic mechanical analysis tests, which confirm an increase of up to 106% in storage modulus for hybrid MoS₂/h‐BN with 0.5 wt % content. When the hybrid MoS₂/h‐BN nanofillers were incorporated into the polymeric matrix, increases up to 102% in crosslink density were observed, indicating that strong interactions between the hybrid nanofillers and PU were established. However, the most important synergistic effect between the mixture of MoS₂ and h‐BN nanoadditives was the increase of up to 752% in thermal conductivity with respect to neat polymer. Therefore, hybrid composites based in two‐dimensional MoS₂/h‐BN nanofillers with multifunctional attributes can be applied in advanced polymeric materials that require high mechanical and thermal performance. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018 , 135, 46560.     

Preparation and properties of organic–inorganic hybrid composites based on polystyrene and an incompletely condensed polyvinylsilsesquioxane oligomer

An incompletely condensed polyvinylsilsesquioxane (PVSQ) oligomer containing abundant silanol groups was synthesized and characterized by FTIR, ¹H‐NMR, ²⁹Si‐NMR, and MALDI‐TOF‐MS. Polystyrene/polyvinylsilsesquioxane (PS/PVSQ) hybrid composites were prepared by an in situ bulk polymerization. The hybrid composites showed higher T_g, T_d, and char yield than PS homopolymer and without mechanical loss. The improvements in the properties of PS/PVSQ hybrid composites can be ascribed to the crosslinking function of PVSQ by silanol condensation in later processing. The hybrids showed different morphology from discrete microstructure to continuous network depending on the concentration of PVSQ. Because of the surface enrichment, a PVSQ protection layer was formed, which made the hybrid surface more hydrophobic. The structure and the reaction mechanism of PS/PVSQ hybrid composites were also investigated. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

Phase characterization and mechanical and flame‐retarding properties of nano‐CaSO4/polypropylene and nano‐Ca3(PO4)2/polypropylene composites

An in situ deposition approach was used for the synthesis of nano‐CaSO₄ and nano‐Ca₃(PO₄)₂. The nanosize particles were confirmed with an X‐ray diffraction technique. Composites of polypropylene (PP) with 0.1–0.5 wt % nano‐ or commercial CaSO₄ or nano‐Ca₃(PO₄)₂ were prepared. The transition from the α phase to the β phase was observed for 0.1–0.3 wt % nano‐CaSO₄/PP and nano‐Ca₃(PO₄)₂/PP composites. This was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared. A differential scanning calorimetry analysis was carried out to determine the thermal behavior of the nanocomposites with increasing amounts of the nano‐CaSO₄ and nano‐Ca₃(PO₄)₂ fillers. Increases in the tensile strength and Young's modulus were observed up to certain loading and were followed by a decrease in the tensile strength. A continuous decrease in the elongation at break (%) was also observed for commercial CaSO₄ and larger nano‐Ca₃(PO₄)₂. A decrease in the mechanical properties after a certain loading might have been due to the agglomeration and phase transition of PP in the composites. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 103: 670–680, 2007     

Thermomechanical properties of alkali treated jute‐polyester/nanoclay biocomposites fabricated by VARTM process

A systematic study was carried out to investigate the effect of alkali treatment and nanoclay on thermomechanical properties of jute fabric reinforced polyester composites (JPC) fabricated by the vacuum‐assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) process. Using mechanical mixing and sonication process, 1% and 2% by weight montmorillonite K10 nanoclay were dispersed into B‐440 premium polyester resin to fabricate jute fabric reinforced polyester nanocomposites. The average fiber volume was determined to be around 40% and void fraction was reduced due to the surface treatment as well as nanoclay infusion in these biocomposites. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) revealed enhancement of dynamic elastic/plastic responses and glass transition temperature (T_g) in treated jute polyester composites (TJPC) and nanoclay infused TJPC compared with those of untreated jute polyester composites (UTJPC). Alkali treatment and nanoclay infusion also resulted in enhancement of mechanical properties of JPC. The maximum flexural, compression, and interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) properties were found in the 1 wt % nanoclay infused TJPC. Fourier transform‐infrared spectroscopy (FT‐IR) revealed strong interaction between the organoclay and polyester that resulted in enhanced thermomechanical properties in the composites. Lower water absorption was also observed due to surface treatment and nanoclay infusion in the TJPC. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013     

Effect of various alumina nano‐fillers on the thermal and mechanical behaviour of low‐density polyethylene–Al2O3 composites

Two different alumina powders were dispersed in low‐density polyethylene (LDPE) to evaluate if any role can be ascribed to the crystalline phase, size and morphology of the alumina filler. In particular a submicrometric α‐alumina and a nanocrystalline transition (γ/δ) alumina were added to the polymer at 5 wt% concentration, using a Brabender mixing unit. Both the neat inorganic fillers showed a good dispersibility in the polyolefin. The thermal and mechanical properties of the composites obtained were evaluated. As expected, a significant increase of the stiffness and abrasion resistance of LDPE was achieved in both cases. Furthermore, the composites showed a higher thermo‐oxidative stability with respect to neat LDPE. Independent of their crystalline phase, size and morphology, both fillers gave a similar enhancement of composite features. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Investigation of mechanical properties of alumina nanoparticle‐loaded hybrid glass/carbon‐fiber‐reinforced epoxy composites

This research work investigates the tensile strength and elastic modulus of the alumina nanoparticles, glass fiber, and carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composites. The first type composites were made by adding 1–5 wt % (in the interval of 1%) of alumina to the epoxy matrix, whereas the second and third categories of composites were made by adding 1–5 wt % short glass, carbon fibers to the matrix. A fourth type of composite has also been synthesized by incorporating both alumina particles (2 wt %) and fibers to the epoxy. Results showed that the longitudinal modulus has significantly improved because of the filler additions. Both tensile strength and modulus are further better for hybrid composites consisting both alumina particles and glass fibers or carbon fibers. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014 , 131, 39749.