Mechanical,thermal expansion,and flammability properties of co-extruded wood polymer composites with basalt fiber reinforced shells

Basalt fiber (BF) filled high density polyethylene (HDPE) and co-extruded wood plastic composites (WPCs) with BF/HDPE composite shell were successfully prepared and their mechanical, morphological and thermal properties characterized. The BFs had an average diameter of 7 μm with an organic surfactant surface coating, which was thermally decomposed at about 210 °C. Incorporating BFs into HDPE matrix substantially enhanced flexural, tensile and dynamic modulus without causing a noticeable decrease in the tensile and impact strength of the composites. Micromechanical modeling of tensile properties for the BF/HDPE composites showed a good fit of the selected models to the experimental data. Compared to neat HDPE, BF/HDPE composites had reduced linear coefficient of thermal expansion (LCTE) values. The use of the pure HDPE and BF/HDPE layers over a WPC core greatly improved impact strength of core–shell structured composites. However, the relatively less-stiff HDPE shell with large LCTE values decreased the overall composite modulus and thermal stability. Both flexural and thermal expansion properties were enhanced with BF reinforced HDPE shells, leading to well-balanced properties of core–shell structured material. Cone calorimetry analysis indicated that flammability performance of core–shell structured composites was improved as the BF content increased in the shell layer.     

Dimensional stability and mechanical behaviour of wood–plastic composites based on recycled and virgin high-density polyethylene (HDPE)

This paper investigated the stability, mechanical properties, and the microstructure of wood–plastic composites, which were made using either recycled or virgin high-density polyethylene (HDPE) with wood flour (Pinus radiata) as filler. The post-consumer HDPE was collected from plastics recycling plant and sawdust was obtained from a local sawmill. Composite panels were made from recycled HDPE through hot-press moulding exhibited excellent dimensional stability as compared to that made from virgin HDPE. The tensile and flexural properties of the composites based on recycled HDPE were equivalent to those based on virgin HDPE. Adding maleated polypropylene (MAPP) by 3–5 wt% in the composite formulation significantly improved both the stability and mechanical properties. Microstructure analysis of the fractured surfaces of MAPP modified composites confirmed improved interfacial bonding. Dimensional stability and strength properties of the composites can be improved by increasing the polymer content or by addition of coupling agent. This project has shown that the composites treated with coupling agents will be desirable as building materials due to their improved stability and strength properties.     

Elastomer modified polypropylene–polyethylene blends as matrices for wood flour–plastic composites

Blends of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) could potentially be used as matrices for wood–plastic composites (WPCs). The mechanical performance and morphology of both the unfilled blends and wood-filled composites with various elastomers and coupling agents were investigated. Blending of the plastics resulted in either small domains of the minor phase in a matrix of major phase or a co-continuous morphology if equal amounts of HDPE and PP were added. The tensile moduli and yield properties of the blends were clearly proportional to the relative amounts of HDPE and PP in the blends. However, the nominal strain at break and the notched Izod impact energies of HDPE were greatly reduced by adding as little as 25% of the PP. Adding an ethylene–propylene–diene (EPDM) elastomer to the blends, reduced moduli and strength but increased elongational properties and impact energies, especially in HDPE-rich blends. Adding wood flour to the blends stiffened but embrittled them, especially the tougher, HDPE-rich blends, though the reductions in performance could be offset somewhat by adding elastomers and coupling agents or a combination of both.     

High density polyethylene and poly(ethylene terephthalate) in situ sub-micro-fibril blends as a matrix for wood plastic composites

Wood plastic composites were prepared based on in situ formed poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) sub-micro-fibril reinforced high density polyethylene (HDPE) matrices, using a two-step reactive extrusion technology. The use of ethylene-glycidyl methacrylate (E-GMA) copolymer improved phase compatibility in the sub-micro-fibril blends (SMFBs) with 75% HDPE and 25% PET. Most of in situ formed PET fibrils were less than 500 nm in diameter. The PET fibrils obviously increased mechanical properties of the blend, especially the moduli. The subsequent addition of 40 wt.% wood flour did not influence the size and morphology of PET fibrils, and the fibrils and wood fibers had a synergic reinforcement effect on composite properties. Compared with the HDPE/wood composites, the SMFB/wood system had 65% higher tensile strength, 95% higher tensile modulus, 42% higher flexural strength, and 64% higher flexural modulus, respectively. The technology offers a way to use engineering plastics (i.e., PET) for high performance WPC manufacturing.     

Wood–plastics composites with better fire retardancy and durability performance

This study concerns the preparation and study of wood–plastic composites (WPCs). The matrix used was high density polyethylene. Results showed that the addition of wood fibres increased mechanical properties (tensile, flexural and compression) of the neat plastic remarkably. Additives such as fire retardants and light stabilizers were added to improve properties like fire retardancy and durability performance. The addition of fire retardants could lead to auto-extinguishing materials when ammonium polyphosphate or aluminium hydroxide were used. Outdoor durability depended on both the light stabilizer and the fire retardant added to the formulation. The fire retardant worsened the outdoor durability. However, stabilized fire retarded-WPCs showed much lower fading than non-stabilized non-fire retarded composites and several industrial samples. Stabilized composites with aluminium hydroxide as fire retardant showed the best overall results with a fading degree even lower than the stabilized non-fire retarded composite.     

Effect of coupling agents on reinforcing potential of recycled carbon fibre for polypropylene composite

Polypropylene (PP) composites reinforced with recycled carbon fibre have been prepared through extrusion compounding and injection moulding. The reinforcing potential of the recycled fibre was increased by improving the interfacial adhesion between the fibre and PP matrix and this was done by the addition of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAPP) coupling agents. Three MAPP couplers with different molecular weights and maleic anhydride contents were considered. The effects on the mechanical properties of the composite were studied, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to study the fracture morphology of the tensile specimens. It was observed that with the addition of MAPP the interfacial adhesion was improved as fewer fibres were pulled-out and less debonding was seen. A microbond test was performed and a significant improvement in interfacial shear strength was measured. This resulted in composites with higher tensile and flexural strengths. The maximum strength was achieved from MAPP with the highest molecular weight. Increased modulus was also achieved with certain grades of MAPP. It was also found that the composite impact strength was improved significantly by MAPP, due to a higher compatibility between the fibre and matrix, which reduced crack initiation and propagation.     

Morphology,mechanical properties,and dimensional stability of wood particle/high density polyethylene composites: Effect of removal of wood cell wall composition

Variation in the chemical composition of wood cell walls has a significant influence on the properties of wood plastic composites (WPCs). This study investigated the effect of removal of hemicellulose and/or lignin on the mechanical properties and dimensional stability of WPCs. Four types of wood particles with various compositions including native wood flour (WF), hemicellulose-removed particle (HR), holocellulose (HC), and α-cellulose (αC) were prepared and compounded with high density polyethylene (HDPE) in an extruder, both with and without maleated polyethylene. Injection molding was used to make test specimens. The HR-based composites exhibited the best water resistance. The HC-based composites obtained a greater tensile modulus but a lower water resistance. The highest values for tensile strength, elongation at brake, toughness, and impact strength were achieved by the composites filled with αC.     

Experimental and theoretical studies on the properties of injection moulded glass fibre reinforced mixed plastics composites

Recycled mixed post-consumer and post-industrial plastic wastes consisting of HDPE, LDPE and PP were injection moulded with short glass fibre (10–30% by weight) to produce a new generation composite materials. Intensive experimental studies were then performed to characterise the tensile, compression and flexural properties of glass fibre reinforced mixed plastics composites. With the addition of 30 wt.% of glass fibre, the strength properties and elastic modulus increased by as much as 141% and 357%, respectively. The best improvement is seen in the flexural properties due to the better orientation of the glass fibres in the longitudinal direction at the outer layers. The randomness and length of the glass fibre were accounted to modify the existing rule of mixture and fibre model analysis to reliably predict the elastic and strength properties of glass fibre reinforced mixed plastics composites.     

Wood Fibre Reinforced Polypropylene Composites: Effect of Fibre Geometry and Coupling Agent on Physico-Mechanical Properties

Wood fibre reinforced polypropylene composites at fibre content 50% by weight have been prepared and different types of wood fibres (hard wood fibre, soft wood fibre, long wood fibre and wood chips) were treated with coupling agent (MAH-PP) to increase the interfacial adhesion with the matrix to improve the dispersion of the particles and to decrease the water sorption properties of the final composite.The present study investigated the tensile, flexural, charpy impact and impact properties of wood fibre reinforced polypropylene composites as a function of coupling agent and fibre length and structure.From the results it is observed that wood chips-PP composites showed better tensile and flexural properties comparative with the other wood fibre-PP composites with the addition of 5%MAH-PP, which is around 65% and 50% for tensile strength and flexural strength respectively. Hard wood fibre-PP composites showed better impact characteristic values comparative to other wood fibre-PP composites with the addition of 5%MAH-PP and damping index decreased about to 60%. Charpy impact strength also increased up to 60% with the addition of 5%MAH-PP for long wood fibre-PP composites. Water absorption and scanning electron microscopy of the composites are also investigated.     

Effects of chemical modification of wood particles with glutaraldehyde and 1,3-dimethylol-4,5-dihydroxyethyleneurea on properties of the resulting polypropylene composites

Both glutaraldehyde (GA) and 1,3-dimethylol-4,5-dihydroxyethyleneurea (DMDHEU) can crosslink the cell wall polymers and dimensionally stabilize wood particles and the treated wood particles are thus expected to enhance the properties of the resulting wood particle/polypropylene composites. Compared to the composites filled with untreated particles, treatments of wood particles with both GA and DMDHEU showed a great reduction in water uptake and dimensional swelling of the resulting composites up to 39% and 46%, respectively. Both the flexural and tensile moduli increased due to wood particles treatments with GA and DMDHEU. Treatments of wood particles improved the tensile strength but moderately weakened the flexural strength and Charpy impact strength of the composites. Dynamic mechanical analysis and microscopy suggested an improved interfacial compatibility between wood particles and matrix due to GA and DMDHEU treatments. Chemical treatment resulted in smaller particle sizes and altered microscopic fracture appearance after composite production as compared to untreated particles. Morphological changes were attributed to embrittlement of wood particles, which may negatively influence the mechanical properties of the resulting composites.     

玻璃纤维含量对竹粉/高密度聚乙烯复合材料性能的影响

为利用玻璃纤维提高木塑复合材料的综合性能,探讨玻璃纤维含量对竹粉/高密度聚乙烯(HDPE)复合材料性能的影响规律,首先,采用A-171硅烷偶联剂对竹粉表面进行了改性,并加入了一定量的玻璃纤维;然后,采用热压成型工艺制备了玻璃纤维-竹粉/HDPE复合材料;最后,考察了玻璃纤维含量对复合材料力学性能、热学性能及摩擦学性能的影响,并利用SEM观察材料的断面和磨损表面形貌。结果表明:当玻璃纤维含量为3wt%时,能显著提高竹粉/HDPE复合材料的拉伸强度和弯曲强度,与未添加玻璃纤维的复合材料相比,添加玻璃纤维后复合材料的拉伸强度和弯曲强度分别提高了19.41%和23.54%;在30~60℃温度范围内,复合材料长度-宽度方向上的线膨胀系数随着玻璃纤维含量的增加而明显减小,而同一复合材料的线膨胀系数随温度的升高而逐步增大;在氮气气氛下,随玻璃纤维含量的增加,竹粉/HDPE复合材料的摩擦系数先逐渐增大,而后基本保持不变,磨损率逐渐减小。所得结论显示玻璃纤维含量为3wt%~7wt%的木塑产品适用于建筑横梁(如凉亭或桥梁等),而玻璃纤维含量为7wt%~10wt%的木塑产品适用于高人流量场所(如公园或休闲绿道等)的地面铺装。      

短切碳纤维表面处理对木粉/高密度聚乙烯复合材料性能的影响

木粉（WF）填充增强高密度聚乙烯（HDPE）复合材料具有良好的环境效益,少量引入短切碳纤维（SCF）可进一步提高其力学性能。为改善SCF与WF/HDPE复合材料中塑料基体的界面结合,提高SCF在WF/HDPE复合材料中的增强作用,采用气相、液相及气液双效氧化3种表面处理方式处理SCF,通过挤出工艺制备短切碳纤维增强木粉/高密度聚乙烯复合材料（SCF-WF/HDPE）,探讨了不同处理方法对SCF-WF/HDPE复合材料性能的影响。SEM观察显示,表面处理增大了SCF的表面粗糙度,可提高其与基体的界面结合;动态力学性能分析证实碳纤维提高了存储模量。测试结果表明：表面处理过的短切碳纤维可使SCF-WF/HDPE复合材料的力学性能、热力学性能和蠕变性能均得到显著提高,其中气相表面处理的效果最好。对比WF/HDPE复合材料,SCF-WF/HDPE的拉伸强度提高了34.5%,弯曲强度提高了23%,冲击强度提高了54.7%。     

超高填充聚丙烯基木塑复合材料高低温性能

为了充分降低成本,增加环境友好性并获得良好的木质感,以杨木纤维和毛竹纤维为原料,通过挤出成型制备超高填充聚丙烯基木塑复合材料(UH-WPCs)。基于聚丙烯基体含量的大幅降低,对比分析了填充量和木质纤维种类对UH-WPCs高低温力学性能、高低温蠕变性能、热膨胀性能、尺寸稳定性及吸水性能的影响。结果表明,随着填充量从75wt%增加到90wt%,其线性热膨胀系数大幅降低,蠕变应变逐渐减小而在90wt%时增大;拉伸模量和弯曲模量随填充量的增加先升高而后在90wt%时下降;拉伸强度、弯曲强度和冲击强度随着填充量的增加逐渐降低;在低温?30℃时UH-WPCs的拉伸和弯曲性能较高,高温60℃时冲击韧性较好。温度、湿度及含水率变化均导致UH-WPCs尺寸变化,其中厚度方向尺寸变化率最大,其次为宽度方向,长度方向最小,表现出明显的各向异性;湿度对UH-WPCs的尺寸稳定性的影响远大于温度的作用。杨木基UH-WPCs综合性能优于毛竹基UH-WPCs,这与杨木纤维具有更大的长径比及良好的界面结合有关。UH-WPCs的研究为降低WPCs生产成本和拓宽其应用领域提供了理论依据。      

An analytical model for predicting the freeze–thaw durability of wood–fiber composites

The development and validation of an analytical model that predicts the onset of frost-induced damage in wood–plastic composites (WPCs) is presented in this work. The mathematical model is based on the mechanics of a hollow cylinder subjected to an internal pressure caused by the expansion of freezing moisture bound in the wood–fiber reinforcement. The model is substantiated using experimental data from several published studies. Using a stochastic approach, the model is implemented to analyze the effect of wood fiber specie, fiber volume fraction, and matrix material properties on the frost resistance of fully and partially saturated WPCs. Results show that WPCs with high fiber contents, high moisture contents, and low polymer tensile strengths are most susceptible to frost-induced damage. Data also suggest that the use of softwood fibers (e.g., pine, spruce) and polymers with low moduli and high tensile strengths enhances the frost-resistance of WPCs.     

Mechanical Properties of Thermoplastic and Thermoset Composites Reinforced with 3D Biaxial Warp-knitted Fabrics

In this study, two types of thermoplastic matrices (low melting point polyethylene terephthalate (LPET) fiber and polypropylene (PP) fiber) and glass fiber/epoxy resin/multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were used to fabricate the thermoplastic and thermoset composite materials with 3D biaxial warp-knitted fabrics. Thermoplastic and thermoset composites were fabricated using hot-press and resin transfer molding (RTM) methods. The fabricated samples were tested with tensile and three-point flexural tests. In thermoplastic composites, samples in the 90° direction and LPET matrix showed the best tensile and flexural properties with an improvement of 39 and 21% tensile modulus and strength, 16 and 8% flexural modulus and strength compared to the PP samples in the same direction. In thermoset composites, samples in the 90° direction and MWCNTs showed the best improvement of the flexural modulus and strength with 97 and 58% compared to the samples without MWCNTs. This improvement can most likely be attributed to an increase in interfacial adhesion due to the presence of the carbon nanotubes.     

Properties of Wood Fibre-Polypropylene Composites: Effect of Wood Fibre Source

This study examined the effect of type of wood fibre source on the physical and mechanical properties of wood fibre-polypropylene composites. Wood flour, fibres of heat-treated wood and pellets were used as sources of wood fibres in the manufacturing process. All studied wood fibre-polypropylene composites were made from 75% wood, 22% recycled polypropylene (PP) and 3% maleated polypropylene (MAPP). Wood fibre-polypropylene composites were compounded in a conical twin-screw extruder. Water absorption and thickness swelling were studied. Mechanical properties of the composites were characterised by tensile, flexural, and impact testing. Micromechanical deformation processes were investigated using scanning electron microscopy done on the fractured surfaces of broken samples. The durability of composites exposed to three accelerated cycles of water immersion, freezing and thawing was examined. The results showed that the density of the composites was a key factor governing water absorption and thickness swelling. A significant improvement in tensile strength, flexural strength, and Charpy impact strength was observed for composites reinforced with heat-treated fibre compared to composites reinforced with pellets and especially to wood flour reinforced composites. The flexural strength and dimensional stability performance reduced after exposure to freeze-thaw cycling for all composites, but the degree of these changes was dependent on the wood fibre source.     

Mechanical properties and flammability of sisal/PP composites: Effect of flame retardant type and content

In this research, magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂) and zinc borate, as flame retardants, were incorporated into sisal/PP composites. Maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene was also used as a compatibilizer. Adding flame retardants into sisal/PP composites reduced burning rate and increased thermal stability of the composites. No synergistic effect was observed when both magnesium hydroxide and zinc borate were incorporated in the sisal/PP composites. In addition, the sisal/PP composites exhibited insignificant difference of shear viscosity at high shear rate indicating that types of flame retardants used in this study had no impact on the processability of the composites. Good distribution of flame retardants and sisal fiber in PP matrix was also observed. All PP composites had lower impact strength than the neat PP. However, the sisal/PP composites with the addition of Mg(OH)₂ and zinc borate exhibited comparable tensile and flexural properties to the sisal/PP composites without adding those flame retardants. Therefore, the addition of Mg(OH)₂ and zinc borate enhanced flame retardancy of sisal/PP composites without sacrificing their mechanical properties.     

Utilization of natural montmorillonite modified with dimethyl,dehydrogenated tallow quaternary ammonium salt as reinforcement in almond shell flour–polypropylene bio-nanocomposites

The main goal of this work was to evaluate the technical feasibility of almond shell flour (ASF) as wood substitute in the production of wood–plastic composites (WPCs). The effects of organically modified montmorillonite (OMMT), as reinforcing agent, on the mechanical and physical properties were also investigated. In order to improve the poor interfacial interaction between the hydrophilic Lignocellulosic material and hydrophobic polypropylene matrix, maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAPP) was added as a coupling agent to all the composites studied. In the sample preparation, OMMT and ASF contents were used as variable factors. The morphology of the specimens was characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) techniques. The results of mechanical properties measurements indicated that when 3 wt.% OMMT were added, tensile and flexural properties reached their maximum values. At high level of OMMT loading (5 wt.%), increased population of OMMT lead to agglomeration and stress transfer gets blocked. The addition of OMMT filler decreased the water absorption and thickness swelling of composites. SEM study approved the good interaction of the almond shell flour with the polymer as well as the effectiveness of OMMT in improvement of the interaction. TEM study revealed better dispersion of silicate layers in WPCs loaded with 3 wt.% of OMMT. The improvement of physico-mechanical properties of composites confirmed that OMMT has good reinforcement and the optimum synergistic effect of OMMT and ASF was achieved at the combination of 3 and 50 wt.%, respectively. The findings indicated that almond shell as agro-waste material is a valuable renewable natural resource for composite production and could be utilized as a substitute for wood in composite industries.     

Processing, compatibilization and properties of ternary composites of Mater-Bi with polyolefins and hemp fibres

Ternary composites of a biodegradable thermoplastic matrix, Mater-Bi® (MB), with various polyolefins (PP, HDPE and PS) and hemp fibres (H) were obtained by melt mixing and characterized by SEM, OM, DSC, TGA and tensile tests. The properties of composites were compared with those of MB/polyolefin and MB/H blends. Maleic anhydride functionalized polyolefins were employed as compatibilizers. Crystallization behaviour and morphology of the composites were found to be affected by the composition, phase dispersion and compatibilizer. Thermogravimetric analysis indicated that the thermal stability of the polyolefin phase and fibres was influenced by the composition and phase structure. A significant improvement of tensile modulus and strength was recorded for composites of MB with PE and PS as compared to MB/H composites. The results indicate that incorporation of polyolefins in the biodegradable matrix, compared to binary matrix/fibre system, may have significant advantages in terms of properties, processability and cost.     

The utilization of bamboo charcoal enhances wood plastic composites with excellent mechanical and thermal properties

In order to enhance the mechanical properties and thermal properties of wood plastic composites (WPCs), bamboo charcoal (BC) was used as reinforcing filler of WPC, and a series of BC-WPC composites were prepared. The effect of BC and water treatment on water absorptions, morphologies, mechanical properties, the effect of water treatment on mechanical properties and thermal properties of the composites were investigated. The results showed that BC could have strong interfacial interaction in the WPC. The water resistance, flexural properties, tensile properties and thermal properties of BC-WPC were higher than WPC. The flexural and tensile properties were reduced and the impact strength was increased after water treatment. The presence of BC resists the influence of water absorption on composites mechanical properties.