Family patterns of moral judgment during adolescence and early adulthood.

Family patterns of moral reasoning were compared in a cross-sectional sample from the Oakland Growth Study (H. E. Jones, 1939a, 1939b) and a longitudinal sample from L. Kohlberg's (1958) study of moral judgment development. The 221 offspring in the 2 samples (121 male and 100 female) ranged from 10 to 33 yrs old. Age, sex, cognitive stage, IQ, SES, and education were controlled in the data analyses. There were consistent family patterns of moral reasoning in the 2 samples when both sex and background variables were controlled. Developmental patterns indicated that, during adolescence, parent moral judgment was related to offspring moral reasoning but was a stronger predictor of moral judgment among girls than boys. During young adulthood, fathers' moral judgment and education were the strongest predictors of both sons' and daughters' moral reasoning. However, education, not parent moral reasoning, limited the moral stage attained by adult offspring. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

True or false: Do 5-year-olds understand belief?

In 3 studies (N = 188) we tested the hypothesis that children use a perceptual access approach to reason about mental states before they understand beliefs. The perceptual access hypothesis predicts a U-shaped developmental pattern of performance in true belief tasks, in which 3-year-olds who reason about reality should succeed, 4- to 5-year-olds who use perceptual access reasoning should fail, and older children who use belief reasoning should succeed. The results of Study 1 revealed the predicted pattern in 2 different true belief tasks. The results of Study 2 disconfirmed several alternate explanations based on possible pragmatic and inhibitory demands of the true belief tasks. In Study 3, we compared 2 methods of classifying individuals according to which 1 of the 3 reasoning strategies (reality reasoning, perceptual access reasoning, belief reasoning) they used. The 2 methods gave converging results. Both methods indicated that the majority of children used the same approach across tasks and that it was not until after 6 years of age that most children reasoned about beliefs. We conclude that because most prior studies have failed to detect young children's use of perceptual access reasoning, they have overestimated their understanding of false beliefs. We outline several theoretical implications that follow from the perceptual access hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Representations as mediators of adolescent deductive reasoning

In Experiment 1, preadolescents, middle adolescents, and late adolescents were presented 3 deductive reasoning tasks. With some important exceptions, conditional reasoning improved with age on problems containing permission conditional relations, and reasoning fallacies increased with age on problems containing causal conditional relations. The results of Experiments 2a and 2b indicated that problem type (i.e., permission or causal) does not mediate the activation of conditional reasoning skills. Rather, valid conditional inferences are more common on problems for which plausible alternative antecedents can be generated than on problems for which alternative antecedent generation is difficult. Conditional rules for which alternative antecedent generation is difficult may be misrepresented as biconditionals, resulting in biconditional rather than conditional reasoning.     

Client improvement on higher and lower intensity problems as a function of group cohesiveness.

16 graduate students (mean age 28.5 yrs) met in 2 separate therapy groups for 10 wks. S-selected outside raters evaluated Ss' improvement or deterioration in problem resolution. Ratings were performed on both disclosed problems and on nondisclosed control problems that Ss had indicated as of higher or lower intensity. It was determined that the order of problem improvement was: (1) disclosed higher-intensity problems, (2) disclosed lower-intensity problems, (3) nondisclosed lower-intensity problems, and (4) nondisclosed higher-intensity problems; all differences were significant. More problems were disclosed in higher-cohesive sessions, and external raters' S improvement on problems disclosed in higher-cohesive sessions was significantly greater than those disclosed in lower-cohesive sessions. Results are discussed in relation to group therapy. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of applicability in the emergence of the overattribution bias.

Study 1 assessed participants' theories regarding various issues previously used in overattribution bias studies. Results suggest that personality plays an important role in explaining positions on these issues. Studies 2, 3, and 4 indicated that the overattribution bias is contingent on the explanatory applicability of accessible concepts for a particular issue. Study 2 used an issue associated with personality; an overattribution bias emerged only when personality was stressed in the instructions. Study 3 used an issue associated with a sociological theory; this time, an overattribution bias appeared only when a socioeconomic concept was emphasized. Essays were not circulated in Studies 2 and 3, but were in Study 4. Again, the bias appeared only when an applicable (personality) concept was activated. These results, which extend the range of applicability, are discussed within the framework of the social judgability approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cocaine use can increase cigarette smoking: Evidence from laboratory and naturalistic settings.

Two studies examined the effects of cocaine use on cigarette smoking. Study 1 was conducted with 10 healthy volunteers under controlled laboratory conditions. Participants received double-blind doses of intranasal cocaine HCI (100 mg) or placebo in separate sessions, with each being followed by a 3-hr period of monitored cigarette smoking. Latency to the first cigarette and the mean interval between cigarettes was significantly shorter and the total number of cigarettes smoked was greater after cocaine than placebo administration. Study 2 was conducted by using urine specimens from 9 ambulatory cocaine-dependent patients. Urine cotinine (nicotine metabolite) levels on days when urinalysis testing indicated recent cocaine use were compared with levels on days when urinalysis testing indicated no recent use. Cotinine levels were significantly higher on cocaine-positive days, indicating that cocaine use was associated with greater cigarette smoking. Overall results provide evidence that acute cocaine administration can increase cigarette smoking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Televised self-confrontation and recalled affect: A new look at videotape recall.

Utilized 2 analogy studies of videotape feedback to investigate the extent to which 10 graduate students with previous video feedback training could recall feelings they experienced during a dyadic interaction, when shown a televised replay of that interaction. Pairs of Ss were trained to continuously rate their degree of comfort or discomfort during the actual ("live") interaction and, subsequently, as they watched a replay of their interaction. A push-button recording system was employed with the self-rating data from live and recall sessions, with the 2 sessions exactly synchronized for the purpose of analysis. Results of 2 studies with role-playing counseling students and with intimate male-female couples yielded moderate correlations between live self-ratings and those recalled under videotape stimulation. It was also found that playing the client rather than the counselor role (Study 1) or having one's self-ratings disclosed to a partner (Study 2) significantly increased the association between live and recalled self-ratings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-efficacy and disclosure of HIV-positive serostatus to sex partners.

HIV-positive persons face significant challenges to disclosing their HIV serostatus, and failure to disclose can place their sex partners at risk. The current study examined HIV serostatus disclosure in 266 sexually active HIV-positive persons recruited from the community. Results showed that 41% had not disclosed their HIV serostatus to sex partners. Men who had not disclosed to partners indicated lower rates of condom use during anal intercourse and scored significantly lower on a measure of self-efficacy for condom use compared to individuals who had disclosed. Emotional distress was also greatest among persons who had not recently disclosed. Having not disclosed to sex partners was closely associated with lower self-efficacy for disclosing, with women who had not disclosed reporting the lowest disclosure self-efficacy. As people living with HIV-AIDS are encouraged to disclose their HIV status, interventions are needed to facilitate disclosure decision making. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessment of irrational health beliefs: Relation to health practices and medical regimen adherence.

The purpose of the present research was to provide initial validation of the 20-item Irrational Health Belief Scale (IHBS). Study 1 included 392 undergraduate psychology students. Results from Study 1 suggested that the IHBS total score is internally consistent and stable over an 18-month time period. Greater health-related cognitive distortion (higher IHBS scores) was associated with weaker internal health locus of control beliefs, lower positive affectivity, stronger chance health locus of control beliefs, and greater negative affectivity. Most important, greater cognitive distortion was uniquely and significantly associated with a less positive pattern of health practices. Study 2 involved 107 individuals with Type I diabetes mellitus. Results indicated that higher IHBS scores were significantly associated with both objective (hemoglobin HbA?) and self-reported diabetic regimen adherence independent of trait neuroticism and conscientiousness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Shyness, masculine ideology, physical attractiveness, and emotional inexpressiveness: Testing a mediational model of men's interpersonal competence.

Amodel was tested in which emotional inexpressiveness fully mediates the relation of shyness, gender identity, and physical attractiveness with men's interpersonal competence. Structural equation modeling of the results of Study 1 showed that fully and partially mediated (i.e., direct and indirect paths) models fit the data equally well. Study 2 modifications to the model included replacing gender identity with masculine ideology and conducting a multidimensional assessment of competence. Results indicated that the partially mediated model was better in explaining the data; however, the model was replicated in that emotional inexpressiveness mediated the relations of shyness and masculine ideology with interpersonal competence. Implications of the results for modification of the model and for counseling practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Latent growth curve analyses of accelerating decline in cognitive abilities in late adulthood.

Latent growth models were applied to data from the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging to discover if the rate of change in cognitive performance increased from middle age to later adulthood. The sample included 590 participants aged 44 to 88 years at first measurement. Data were gathered at 2 follow-up occasions at intervals of 3 years. Cognitive ability was assessed through 11 tests that tapped crystallized, fluid, memory, and spatial abilities and perceptual speed. Results indicated stability for measures of crystallized ability, linear age changes for many cognitive abilities, and a significant acceleration in linear decline after age 65 for measures with a large speed component. Gender differences were found only in mean level, not in rate of decline. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex preferences in sociometric choices.

Sex biases in children's sociometric preferences were examined developmentally using rating-scale data from 195 girls and 191 boys in kindergarten through the third grade (Study 1) and from 91 girls and 88 boys in the third through sixth grades (Study 2). Results of both studies indicated that children at each grade level rated opposite-sex classmates significantly lower than same-sex classmates. Furthermore, there was a significant linear trend for children's sex biases to increase with age, with this trend being particularly pronounced in the younger grades (i.e., kindergarten to Grade 3). Specifically, children received significantly lower ratings from opposite-sex peers in Grade 3 than they received in kindergarten, Grade 1, and Grade 2. Results are discussed in terms of future research in the area of sociometric assessment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conditional reasoning in children.

Conditional reasoning ability is analyzed in the context of Piaget's logical operational system. It is argued that facility in concrete operations is necessary and sufficient for competence in the simple syllogistic forms, though dealing with conditional statements in certain more complex contexts requires formal operations. Data from 3 studies are presented in support of these assertions. Using a total of 120 Ss in Grades 1–5, results of Exps I and II show that presentation of statements in a concrete conversational context elicited substantially more correct conditional reasoning than has been found in earlier studies. Results of Exp III, which used a total of 154 Ss in Grades 2, 4, 6, and 8, indicate that a distinction is drawn between comprehension that p (not p) entails the possibility of q (given If p, then q) and comprehension that q entails the possibility of p. The former is less difficult than the latter, and only the latter requires concrete operations. A methodological implication of these studies is that in the assessment of logical competence, results depend heavily on the exact manner of presentation, as well as on the specific logical operation being assessed. Implications for the theory of formal operations and for the study of traditional syllogistic reasoning are also discussed. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Redux of Cognitive Consistency Theories: Evidence Judgments by Constraint Satisfaction.

The authors suggest that decisions made from multiple pieces of evidence are performed hy mechanisms of parallel constraint satisfaction, which are related to cognitive consistency theories. Such reasoning processes are bidirectional--decisions follow from evidence, and evaluations of the evidence shift toward coherence with the emerging decision. Using a factually complex legal case, the authors observed patterns of coherence shifts that persisted even when the distribution of decisions was manipulated (Study 1) and influenced by the participants' attitudes (Study 2). The evaluations of the evidence cohered with the preferred decision even when participants changed their preference (Study 3). Supporting the bidirectionality of reasoning. Study 4 showed that assigning participants to a verdict affected their evaluation of the evidence. Coherence shifts were observed also in related background knowledge. This research suggests that cognitive consistency theories should play a greater role in the understanding of human reasoning and decision making. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is there a threshold between peak oxygen uptake and self-reported physical functioning in older adults?

Purpose: Few studies have examined the relationship between directly measured oxygen uptake (VO2) and self-reported physical function (PF). The purpose of this study was: 1) to examine the relationship between peak V02 and PF and 2) to determine whether a threshold or cut point exist that distinguishes between individuals reporting required assistance in the performance of functional tasks (low PF) and those who report ability to perform tasks independently (high PF). Methods: Participants were 161 community-dwelling adults, ages 65-90, who had a baseline evaluation for a clinical trail that included measurement of peak V02 and PF consisted of a summary score combining scores from the Older Americans Resources and Services Multidimensional Functional Assessment Questionnaire, Nagi Disability Study. Rosow-Breslau Scale, Physical Function Scale of the Medical Outcomes Study, and the Falls Efficacy Scale. Decision tree, cubic spline, and logistic regression analyses explored these relationships with age, gender, education, race, body mass index, depression, and total number of chronic diseases included as important covariates. Results: Among all covariates examined, peak V02 was most strongly associated with (P = 0.004) with PF. There was not threshold effect. Decision tree analyses indicated that 18.3 mL.kg-1.min-1 was the optimal cut point distinguishing between low PF and High PG (P < 0.0001). Between-gender differences in PF (P = 0.002) were no longer significant when peak V02 was included in the PF model (P = 0.17). Conclusions: These data indicate that individuals with a V02 < 18 mL.kg-1min-1 report significant difficulty in the performance of daily tasks and that differences in peak V02 may explain, in part, why women report more impairment in PF.     

An integrative typology of personality assessment for aggression: Implications for predicting counterproductive workplace behavior.

This study presents an integrative typology of personality assessment for aggression. In this typology, self-report and conditional reasoning (L. R. James, 1998) methodologies are used to assess 2 separate, yet often congruent, components of aggressive personalities. Specifically, self-report is used to assess explicit components of aggressive tendencies, such as self-perceived aggression, whereas conditional reasoning is used to assess implicit components, in particular, the unconscious biases in reasoning that are used to justify aggressive acts. These 2 separate components are then integrated to form a new theoretical typology of personality assessment for aggression. Empirical tests of the typology were subsequently conducted using data gathered across 3 samples in laboratory and field settings and reveal that explicit and implicit components of aggression can interact in the prediction of counterproductive, deviant, and prosocial behaviors. These empirical tests also reveal that when either the self-report or conditional reasoning methodology is used in isolation, the resulting assessment of aggression may be incomplete. Implications for personnel selection, team composition, and executive coaching are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acknowledgement of handicap as a tactic in social interaction.

Nonhandicapped people often report discomfort and uncertainty when interacting with handicapped individuals. Three studies, using a total of 160 nonhandicapped undergraduates, investigated a possible tactic that handicapped people could use to reduce a fellow interactant's discomfort and uncertainty. Ss watched 2 videotapes of handicapped individuals being interviewed. Ss then chose the handicapped person with whom they would prefer to work on a cooperative task. Results of all 3 studies support the hypothesis that a handicapped person who acknowledges the handicap will be preferred to a handicapped person who does not. In Study 1, Ss significantly preferred a handicapped person who acknowledged the handicap to a handicapped person who did not disclose anything personal. In Study 2, Ss significantly preferred an acknowledging person over one who made a personal disclosure other than about the handicap. In Study 3, Ss preferred the individual acknowledging a handicap over one who disclosed something else personal even when the acknowledging individual was clearly nervous about doing so. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring Affective Clarity Indirectly: Individual Differences in Response Latencies of State.

This research investigated a new method to measure momentary affective clarity indirectly, which is based on latencies of responses to state affect items. Three studies revealed that this indirect measure of momentary clarity demonstrated high reliability and stability as well as convergent and predictive validity. The indirect measure was associated with dispositional clarity when the concept of clarity was activated before measuring response latencies (Studies 1 and 2) and was related to self-reports of momentary clarity (Study 3). Furthermore, Study 3 demonstrated that indirectly measured clarity decreased after an affectively complex film. Indirectly, but not directly, measured momentary clarity predicted a more positive affective state at the end of the study. This effect was mediated by affect regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, physiological reactivity, alcohol problems, and aggression among military veterans.

This study examined the association between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology and aggressive behavior among a sample of male Vietnam veterans (N = 1,328). Results indicated that the hyperarousal PTSD symptom cluster evidenced the strongest positive association with aggression at the bivariate level when compared with the other PTSD symptom clusters. When the PTSD symptom clusters were examined together as predictors, hyperarousal symptoms evidenced a significant positive relationship with aggression, and avoidance/numbing symptoms were negatively associated with aggression. Examination of potential mediators indicated that hyperarousal symptoms were directly associated with aggression and indirectly related to aggression via alcohol problems. Reexperiencing symptoms were associated with aggression only indirectly and through their positive association with physiological reactivity and negative association with alcohol problems. Study results highlight the complexity of the relationship between PTSD symptoms and aggression, and suggest possible mechanisms explaining this association. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's scale errors with tools.

Children sometimes make scale errors, attempting to interact with tiny object replicas as though they were full size. Here, we demonstrate that instrumental tools provide special insight into the origins of scale errors and, moreover, into the broader nature of children's purpose-guided reasoning and behavior with objects. In Study 1, 1.5- to 3.5-year-olds made frequent scale errors with tools in a free-play session. Study 2 utilized a novel forced-choice method, representing a stronger test by handing 2-year-olds a feasible alternative for goal achievement, but children continued to make scale errors. Study 3 confirmed that errors were not based in perceptual immaturity. Results are explained using a framework of teleofunctional (purpose-based) reasoning as a powerful and early developing influence on children's actions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)