Tomographic formulation of interferometric SAR for terrainelevation mapping

Topographic mapping with spotlight synthetic aperture radar (SAR) using an interferometric technique is studied. Included is a review of the equations for determination of terrain elevation from the phase difference between a pair of SAR images formed from data collected at two differing imaging geometries. This paper builds upon the systems analysis of Li and Goldstein in which image pair decorrelation as a function of the “baseline” separation between the receiving antennas was first analyzed. In this paper correlation and topographic height error variance models are developed based on a SAR image model derived from a tomographic image formation perspective. The models are general in the sense that they are constructed to analyze the case of single antenna, two-pass interferometry with arbitrary antenna line of sight, and velocity vector directions. Correlation and height error variance sensitivity to SAR system parameters and terrain gradients are studied     

Absolute radiometric calibration of the CCRS SAR

Determining the radar scattering coefficients from SAR (synthetic aperture radar) image data requires absolute radiometric calibration of the SAR system. The authors describe an internal calibration methodology for the airborne Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS) SAR system, based on radar theory, a detailed model of the radar system, and measurements of system parameters. The methodology is verified by analyzing external calibration data acquired over a six-month period in 1988 by the C-band radar using HH polarization. The results indicate that the overall error is ±0.8 dB (1σ) for incidence angles ±20° from antenna boresight. The dominant error contributions are due to the antenna radome and uncertainties in the elevation angle relative to the antenna boresight     

A technique for measurement of spaceborne SAR antenna patternsusing distributed targets

A method to measure the antenna elevation pattern of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) using distributed targets is introduced. The features of the method are (1) the antenna pattern model parameters are estimated as the solutions of maximum likelihood estimation; (2) To guarantee the uniformity, a screening process based on a chi-square similarity test is applied to the image data; and (3) Noise generated in the SAR receiver and data processor tends to broaden the estimated antenna pattern. To improve it, the estimated noise level is subtracted from the image data. The authors assume that the scattering coefficient over the evaluated images is unknown yet constant (although this could easily be extended to the case where the variation of γ or σ° with incidence angle is known), Three types of antenna pattern models are tested, Among them, the best result is given by a fourth order power model. This technique is applied to selected image data sets from the SIR-B mission, including several scenes analyzed previously by Moore from the Amazon rain forest and Illinois farmland. For the Amazon data (which give the best results), the authors found that the technique adopted in the paper gives residual errors on the antenna pattern fit of less than 0.08 dB for a given scene. Applying the antenna pattern estimated from one scene to others, residual errors of less than 0.3 dB are achieved     

Spotlight mode SAR stereo technique for height computation

This paper examines the feasibility of extracting three-dimensional (3-D) or topographic information in spotlight mode stereo synthetic aperture radar (SAR). A display of a SAR (intensity) image has two axes: range and cross-range. Elevated scatterers appear closer in range; this phenomenon is called radar image layover. How the height of each scatterer can be computed from the difference in its layover between two images is investigated. This is analogous to computing height from disparity distance (triangulation) in optical stereo. The same procedure can be applied on pixel by pixel basis for terrain elevation mapping. A general expression is derived for the accuracy of the height estimate as a function of the range resolution and the angular difference between the image planes. Accuracy increases as the angle between the image planes increases, but the bright scatterers in one image tend to fade in the other image. This limited angular persistence of radar scatterers is also discussed. Trajectories for data collection are examined that provide near-optimal height estimates while eliminating the scatterer persistency problem.     

Determination of antenna elevation pattern for airborne SAR usingthe rough target approach

Data from a forested region of northern Ontario are analyzed to yield an estimate of the antenna elevation pattern for the Canada Center for Remote Sensing airborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR). The extended uniform area was imaged as a series of short flight segments in which the antenna depression angle was systematically stepped, keeping all other acquisition parameters of the aircraft and SAR essentially fixed. Subsequent analysis of the real-time imagery was then performed, dividing average image powers for discrete bands of pixels across the swath to yield the relative gain of the antenna corresponding to the antenna angles for the center of these bands. Combining the total set of these measurements generates the entire elevation pattern. Results are given for the C-band, HH-pattern over an angular range of ~50° and dynamic range of over 30 dB     

Removal of terrain effects from SAR satellite imagery of Arctictundra

Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images of the Earth's terrestrial surface contain geometric and radiometric image effects which are caused by varying terrain elevation and slope. The radiometric effects tend to mask signal variations caused by other physical variables such as soil moisture and surface vegetation type, which are known to influence SAR backscatter signals. As a result, raw SAR images are of limited use in classifying surface vegetation type or quantifying the spatial distribution of soil moisture in regions of terrain relief, The authors present a technique for removing radiometric terrain effects from SAR images. Image correction was carried out in two steps. First, an existing modeling package was used in combination with digital elevation data in order to map the raw image pixels onto a geodetic coordinate system, thereby removing the geometric portion of the image distortion. Radiometric effects were then removed with the aid of a backscatter model which treats the reflected radiation as a combination of diffuse-Lambertian and specular components. Parameters in the backscatter model were determined by comparing two C-band SAR images of a test area in a region of Arctic tundra which were taken from ascending and descending orbit tracks of the ERS-1 satellite. The ascending and descending images displayed reductions in pixel value variance of 30% and 13%, respectively, after processing. Direct comparison of the two test area images reveals a dramatic improvement in image similarity after processing     

Ocean wave imaging using an airborne single pass across-trackinterferometric SAR

An airborne single pass across-track interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) is used to image ocean waves. A theoretical model explaining the imaging mechanisms is developed, and simulations of the interferogram as well as the conventional SAR intensity image are presented for given ocean wave spectra. Distortions of digital elevation models (DEM) derived from InSAR data are explained by the motion of the sea surface. A Monte Carlo method based on forward simulations is used to estimate variance spectra of the distorted elevation models. It is shown that a straightforward estimation of wave height using the distorted InSAR elevation model is in good agreement with true wave height for low amplitude swell with about 10% error depending on propagation direction and coherence time. However, severe underestimation of wave height is found for wind seas propagating in flight direction. Forward simulations show that the distorted InSAR DEM is less dependent an the model chosen for the real aperture radar mechanism than conventional SAR images. Data acquired during an experiment over the North Sea by a high precision InSAR system are compared with simulations     

多极化低频UWB SAR图像的失真补偿

多极化、低频、超宽带合成孔径雷达（UWB SAR）可以获得目标的多极化散射特性,并具有一定的叶簇穿透能力,是未来雷达技术发展的一个重要方向.为了获得较高的方位向分辨率,该系统通常具有较大的方位向处理角,因此天线方向图沿方位向的变化不能忽略.该系统的超宽带特性使得天线方向图随频率的变化也不能忽略.本文假定天线方向图完全已知,提出了多极化低频UWB SAR的系统模型,并在图像的变换域上实现对天线方向图的补偿.最后利用计算机仿真验证了该方法的有效性.     

天线指向抖动对成像质量的影响分析

研究了天线波束指向抖动对图像质量的影响,分别给出了等效斜视情形下天线波束方位向多频抖动和距离向多频抖动对成像质量影响的理论分析和仿真结果。理论和仿真结果表明,不论是天线方位波束指向抖动,还是距离向波束指向抖动,皆会出现成对回波现象,影响图像质量;当波束指向为多频抖动时,SAR图像会出现多个成对回波。另外,距离向波束指向抖动,会使距离模糊度变差;方位波束指向抖动,会使方位模糊度变差。     

多策略ATLAS数据优选与影像匹配相结合的SAR高程控制点提取

为了精化星载SAR影像几何参数并提高立体定位精度,借鉴星载激光测高数据光学遥感影像高程控制点提取思路,设计了一种多策略高级地形激光测高系统(ATLAS)数据优选与影像匹配相结合的SAR高程控制点提取方法。该方法采用非夜间观测光子滤除、高置信度光子选取、SRTM DEM辅助的粗差剔除、大偏心率椭圆滤波核平坦区域光子筛选等多种策略,从ATLAS数据ATL03级产品中提取高质量、平坦区域的激光高程点,再依据SRTM DEM对斜距SAR影像进行地理编码,按激光高程点的平面坐标选取局部谷歌地球影像作为足印影像,采用秩自相似描述子进行足印影像与SAR地理编码影像的匹配,得到与激光高程点对应的SAR影像像点坐标,从而提取SAR高程控制点。采用中国登封市、日本横须贺市两个区域的ATLAS数据进行了高分三号SAR高程控制点提取实验,利用提取的高程控制点进行SAR影像几何参数精化,大幅提升了立体定位精度,验证了该文高程控制点提取方法的可行性和有效性。      

基于高分三号SAR数据的城市建筑高分辨率高维成像

传统合成孔径雷达(SAR)只能获取方位-距离二维图像,无法准确反映目标的三维散射结构信息.层析合成孔径雷达(TomoSAR)是一种多基线干涉测量模式,它将合成孔径原理扩展至高程向,除了可对目标进行二维成像之外,还可以准确恢复目标的高度向散射信息,真正实现三维成像.差分层析合成孔径雷达(D-TomoSAR)将合成孔径原理...     

基于SAR影像模拟几何校正算法参数误差影响分析

基于SAR影像模拟的几何校正算法以其不需要提供地面控制点、精确的成像参数以及所有操作可自动完成等优点,在SAR图像几何校正中受到了广泛的关注和应用。然而测量设备误差的存在,使得算法输入参数（航向角、飞行高度、近端斜距、DEM高程）存在误差,这会引起SAR模拟图像特征发生变化,严重时还会引起图像匹配参数（控制点）误差,降低几何校正精度。论文分析了算法输入参数和控制点对SAR影像模拟和图像匹配的影响,在此基础上完成了关于参数误差影响的较完整的分析,导出了一套相应的计算公式,弥补了现有文献中的一些空缺。      

TerraSAR-X Instrument Calibration Results and Extension for TanDEM-X

Spaceborne remote sensing with synthetic aperture radar (SAR) has become an essential source of high-resolution and continuous Earth observation. Modern satellites like the German TerraSAR-X system provide state-of-the-art radar images with respect to operating flexibility and imaging quality. The outstanding performance of TerraSAR-X image products is achieved by an innovative calibration approach that minimizes systematic antenna and instrument characteristics. The active phased array X-band antenna is fed by 384 transmit/receive modules for electronic beam steering and shaping in the azimuth and elevation direction. The flexible radar instrument hosts an internal calibration system which guarantees the high radiometric stability of all SAR products. New techniques for antenna performance control have been successfully implemented, setting a high standard for next-generation SAR missions. This paper summarizes all essential calibration results of TerraSAR-X that cover internal instrument behavior. Furthermore, we give an outlook on the required bistatic calibration techniques for the future TanDEM-X mission that faces additional performance challenges when calibrating two TerraSAR-X satellites flying in close formation.      

Tutorial review of synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) with applications to imaging of the ocean surface

A synthetic aperture radar (SAR) can produce high-resolution two-dimensional images of mapped areas. The SAR comprises a pulsed transmitter, an antenna, and a phase-coherent receiver. The SAR is borne by a constant velocity vehicle such as an aircraft or satellite, with the antenna beam axis oriented obliquely to the velocity vector. The image plane is defined by the velocity vector and antenna beam axis. The image orthogonal coordinates are range and cross range (azimuth). The amplitude and phase of the received signals are collected for the duration of an integration time after which the signal is processed. High range resolution is achieved by the use of wide bandwidth transmitted pulses. High azimuth resolution is achieved by focusing, with a signal processing technique, an extremely long antenna that is synthesized from the coherent phase history. The pulse repetition frequency of the SAR is constrained within bounds established by the geometry and signal ambiguity limits. SAR operation requires relative motion between radar and target. Nominal velocity values are assumed for signal processing and measurable deviations are used for error compensation. Residual uncertainties and high-order derivatives of the velocity which are difficult to compensate may cause image smearing, defocusing, and increased image sidelobes. The SAR transforms the ocean surface into numerous small cells, each with dimensions of range and azimuth resolution. An image of a cell can be produced provided the radar cross section of the cell is sufficiently large and the cell phase history is deterministic. Ocean waves evidently move sufficiently uniformly to produce SAR images which correlate well with optical photographs and visual observations. The relationship between SAR images and oceanic physical features is not completely understood, and more analyses and investigations are desired.     

The effect of topography on SAR calibration

During normal synthetic aperture radar (SAR) processing, a flat Earth is assumed when performing radiometric corrections such as antenna pattern and scattering area removal. The authors examine the effects of topographic variations on these corrections. Local slopes will cause the actual scattering area to be different from that calculated using the flat Earth assumption. It is shown that this effect may easily cause calibration errors larger than a decibel. Ignoring the topography during antenna pattern removal may also introduce errors of several decibels in the case of airborne systems. The effect of topography on antenna pattern removal is expected to be negligible for spaceborne SARs. The authors show how these effects can be taken into account if a digital elevation model is available for the imaged area. The errors are quantified for two different types of terrain, a moderate relief area near Tombstone, AZ, and a high relief area near Oetztal in the Austrian Alps. The authors show errors for two well-known radar systems, the C-band ERS-1 spaceborne radar system and the three frequency NASA/JPL airborne SAR system (AIRSAR)     

机载前视SAR三维成像算法研究

该文以一种采用天线阵模式的机载前视合成孔径雷达(SAR)系统为对象,根据前视SAR的成像几何模型和回波信号特点,提出了一种适用于机载前视SAR的3维成像算法。该算法首先将各天线阵元接收一遍后的数据采用CS算法获得单幅SAR图像,然后将飞机飞行过程中获得的所有SAR图像中相同方位向对应的数据结合距离多普勒算法思想依次进行成像处理,最后获得3维像。模拟了X波段前视SAR点目标回波并进行了3维成像实验,对成像性能进行了分析。仿真结果验证了该算法的有效性。     

A Three-Dimensional Formulation for Synthetic Aperture Radar Images of Ocean Waves in Orbital Motions

An analytic model of the ocean surface SAR images with a three-dimensional framework is developed following the formalism presented by Swift and Wilson (1979); a trochoidal swell propagates through a uniform field of Bragg-type distributed scatterers. Two- dimensional SAR images are calculated for the interpretation and prediction of actual SAR images of the ocean surface as a function of ocean wave amplitude, wave frequency, propagation direction, and radar frequency, off-nadir angle of the antenna, and spatial resolutions.     

一种结合稀疏重建和匹配滤波的距离模糊抑制方法

由于SAR天线旁瓣特性和脉冲工作体制,SAR图像在一定程度上受到距离模糊的影响.距离模糊抑制工作分别聚焦在SAR系统设计和SAR信号处理两个方面.前者通过天线赋形、正交编码等方式减小距离模糊能量接收,后者利用信号处理技术在回波域和图像域消除距离模糊能量.该文提出了一种结合稀疏重建和匹配滤波技术的距离模糊抑制方法.该方法...     

Accurate and efficient determination of the shoreline in ERS-1 SARimages

Extraction of the shoreline in SAR images is a difficult task to perform using simple image processing operations such as grey-value thresholding, due to the presence of speckle and because the signal returned from the sea surface may be similar to that from the land. A semiautomatic method for detecting the shoreline accurately and efficiently in ERS-1 SAR images is presented. This is aimed primarily at a particular application, namely the construction of a digital elevation model of an intertidal zone using SAR images and hydrodynamic model output, but could be carried over to other applications. A coarse-fine resolution processing approach is employed, in which sea regions are first detected as regions of low edge density in a low resolution image, then image areas near the shoreline are subjected to more elaborate processing at high resolution using an active contour model. Over 90% of the shoreline detected by the automatic delineation process appear visually correct