Levels of histamine and other biogenic amines in high-quality red wines

Biogenic amines in wine may impair sensory wine quality and cause adverse health effects in susceptible individuals. In this study, histamine and other biogenic amines were determined by HPLC after amine derivatisation to dansyl chloride conjugates in 100 selected high-quality red wines made from seven different cultivars. Amine levels varied considerably between different wines. The most abundant amines were putrescine (median = 19.4 mg l(-1), range = 2.9-122), histamine (7.2 mg l(-1), 0.5-26.9), and tyramine (3.5 mg l(-1), 1.1-10.7), whereas lower levels were found for isoamylamine (median = 0.25 mg l(-1)), phenylethylamine (0.16 mg l(-1)), cadaverine (0.58 mg l(-1)), spermidine (1.8 mg l(-1)) and tryptamine (0.06 mg l(-1)). Positive correlations were observed between isoamylamine and phenylethylamine, and between histamine, putrescine and tyramine levels. Amine concentrations were similar in all wine cultivars except Pinot noir and St. Laurent wines, which showed significantly higher tryptamine and cadaverine levels. The results indicate that levels of histamine and other biogenic amines may vary considerably between red wines independent of grape variety and that high amounts can also be found in high-rated wines. Adopting a legal histamine threshold level of 10 mg l(-1) in the European Union, as formerly introduced in other countries, would have excluded 34% of the investigated wines from the market.     

Occurrence of ochratoxin A and biogenic amines in Asian beers sold in French markets

Fifty‐one samples of 17 Asian beer brands commercially available in France were analysed for the occurrence of ochratoxin A and biogenic amines, including ethanolamine, histamine, methylamine, ethylamine, tyramine, tryptamine, 2‐phenylethylamine, putrescine, isopenthylamine and cadaverine. The types and levels of biogenic amines varied from one brand to another. None of the ochratoxin A or biogenic amine contaminants in the Asian beer samples exceeded the recommended levels for safe consumption. Ochratoxin A was found to range from n.d. to 0.175 µg L^?1. Biogenic amines were detected in all samples at a level ranging from 6.15 to 47.30 mg L^?1. Isoamylamine was not detected in any of the beers. Ethanolamine, tyramine, putrescine, and cadaverine were the most abundant of the nine biogenic amines found in this study. The concentrations were 2.75–12.88 mg L^?1 for ethanolamine, 0.58–17.37 mg L^?1 for tyramine, 1.54‐9.78 mg L^?1 for putrescine and 0.31–11.39 mg L^?1 for cadaverine. The work revealed significant, strong correlations (p < 0.01) between concentrations of ochratoxin A and biogenic amines, especially tyramine, tryptamine and cadaverine. Copyright © 2013 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling     

Influence of fertilisation with foliar urea on the content of amines in wine

Amines are substances that could cause toxic effects in the consumer. The concentration of amines in wine depends on different factors such as grape variety, vinification conditions and nitrogen fertilisation of the vines. The aim of this work was to study the influence of the application of foliar urea on the concentration of amines in wine. To carry out the study, grapevines of Tempranillo variety were used. These grapevines were treated with foliar urea at two different concentrations: 2 and 4?kg?N?ha^?1. Treatment with foliar urea significantly increased (p?<?0.05) the concentration of histamine in the wines compared with the control sample (65% in the treatment with 2?kg?N?ha^?1 and 93% in the treatment with 4?kg?N?ha^?1), reaching higher concentrations than the threshold level where it could provoke toxic effects in the consumer (8–20?mg?l^?1). On the other hand, treatment with foliar urea did not increase the concentrations of other amines which could be toxic such as tyramine or phenylethylamine, nor amines such as putrescine which could enhance the toxic effect of histamine. In the case of the volatile amines containing secondary amine groups, the concentration of pirrolidine increased by 37% after treatment with 2?kg?N?ha^?1 and 61% after treatment with 4?kg?N?ha^?1.     

Biogenic amine formation in Turkish dry fermented sausage (sucuk) as affected by nisin and nitrite

BACKGROUND: The effects of nitrite (0, 100, and 200 mg kg^?1) and nisin (0, 250, and 500 mg kg^?1) on biogenic amine formation in sucuk were investigated by utilising a central composite design of response surface methodology. RESULTS: The addition of nitrite led to decreased levels of tryptamine, 2‐phenylethylamine, putrescine, cadaverine, tyramine, and histamine, whereas nisin decreased the tryptamine level and counts of lactic acid bacteria. However, nisin increased putrescine, cadaverine, and spermidine levels. Their interactive effect was also found to be significant (P < 0.05) for putrescine values. CONCLUSION: The additional nitrite levels can be decreased by the addition of nisin, which will hinder biogenic amine formation. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Biogenic amine content of red Spanish wines: comparison of a direct ELISA and an HPLC method for the determination of histamine in wines

Biogenic amines were determined in 61 commercial red Spanish wines from various winemaking areas and elaborated with different vinification/ageing procedures. Biogenic amines (histamine, methylamine, ethylamine, tyramine, phenylethylamine, putrescine and cadaverine) analysis was carried out by RP-HPLC with o-phthaldialdehyde precolumn derivatization and fluorescence detection. Overall, histamine and putrescine were the most prevalent amines, being present in 75% and 71%, respectively, of the wines, followed by tyramine (56% of the wines). There were no significant differences between biogenic amine levels and ageing characteristics of the wines tested. Moreover, it was found that amines suspected to cause toxicological effects (histamine, tyramine and phenylethylamine) are no cause for concern in these Spanish wines as they are present in amounts well below the limit considered as physiological. A commercial competitive direct ELISA immunoassay method specific for the detection of histamine has also tested on these wines and the results were compared with the RP-HPLC method. Both methods showed a good agreement for histamine analysis of wines.     

Determination of biogenic amines in traditional Chinese fermented foods by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC)

A survey of biogenic amine content of traditional Chinese fermented foods (douchi, sufu, fermented sausage, yulu, and shrimp paste) was carried out. Eight major biogenic amines including putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, phenylethylamine, tyramine, spermine, spermidine and tryptamine were separated by reversed-phase HPLC-DAD on Inertsil ODS-SP column after pre-column derivatisation with dansyl chloride. The results showed that spermine (1.65–3.96 mg 100 g^?1), putrescine (0.20–10.89 mg 100 g^?1), cadaverine (3.60–12.14 mg 100 g^?1), and histamine (0.57–20.24 mg 100 g^?1) were the most represented amines. All amines were detected in yulu, while sufu showed a much higher content of most amines. Shrimp paste showed the lowest level of total biogenic amines. Moreover, the composition and content of eight biogenic amines in the selected samples varied among different food types, origins and batches. Although the average content for each amine is within the range that may elicit direct adverse reactions, consumers should be aware of the potential synergistic effect among different amines and limit their consumption at each meal.     

Formation of biogenic amines throughout the industrial manufacture of red wine

Changes in biogenic amines (histamine, methylamine, ethylamine, tyramine, phenylethylamine, putrescine, and cadaverine) were monitored during the industrial manufacture of 55 batches of red wine. The origin of these amines in relation to must, alcoholic fermentation, malolactic fermentation, sulfur dioxide addition, and wine aging and the interactions between amines and their corresponding amino acids and pH were statistically evaluated in samples from the same batches throughout the elaboration process. Some amines can be produced in the grape or the musts (e.g., putrescine, cadaverine, and phenylethylamine) or can be formed by yeast during alcoholic fermentation (e.g., ethylamine and phenylethylamine), although quantitatively only very low concentrations are reached in these stages (less than 3 mg/liter). Malolactic fermentation was the main mechanism of biogenic amine formation, especially of histamine, tyramine, and putrescine. During this stage, the increase in these amines was accompanied by a significant decline in their amino acid precursors. Significant correlations between biogenic amine formation and the disappearance of their corresponding amino acids were observed, which clearly supports the hypothesis that malolactic bacteria are responsible for accumulation of these amines in wines. No increase in the concentration of biogenic amines was observed after SO2 addition and during wine aging, indicating that sulfur dioxide prevents amine formation in subsequent stages.     

新疆赤霞珠葡萄酒发酵过程中生物胺含量的变化

利用高效液相色谱技术分析葡萄酒发酵过程中8种生物胺含量的变化。结果表明,葡萄酒发酵过程中8种生物胺总含量整体呈上升趋势。色胺含量最高,最高可达到98.03 mg/L;腐胺和组胺含量较低,含量均不超过2.48 mg/L;精胺和亚精胺含量变化相对平稳,波动范围在1.81～3.07 mg/L之间,除色胺外,其他生物胺含量均不超过4.50 mg/L。苯乙胺、尸胺、酪胺等在酒精发酵后期和苹果酸-乳酸发酵初期大幅上升,在苹-乳发酵后期,酪胺和亚精胺含量有所下降,其他生物胺含量均有一定程度上升。     

BIOGENIC AMINES IN FINNISH DRY SAUSAGES

A study was conducted to determine the biogenic amine levels of Finnish dry sausages and to compare the results with those of other surveys of different types of fermented sausages. Sausages with high amine concentration were analyzed microbiologically in order to identify amine-producing microorganisms. Tyramine was the most common amine: the mean of 68 samples was 82 mg/kg and the mode 110 mg/kg. Other vasoactive amines found were histamine (<1–200 mg/kg), phenylethylamine (<1–48 mg/kg) and tryptamine (<10–91 mg/kg). Increased amounts of the spoilage indicator amines putrescine and cadaverine were found from most of the samples containing vasoactive amines. The formation of amines can be linked with problem(s) in hygienic conditions of raw materials and manufacturing practices and it is thus proposed that the sum of tyramine, histamine, putrescine and cadaverine could serve as an indicator of quality in fermented meat products.     

Biogenic amines in alcoholic beverages produced in Taiwan

The biogenic amines tyramine, putrescine, cadaverine, 2-phenylethylamine, histamine and tryptamine were determined in 13 kinds of alcoholic beverages produced in Taiwan. They were derivatised with dansyl chloride and analysed using a high-performance liquid chromatographic method. Total amine content ranged from 0.23 to 11.4 μg ml^?1 with Charng Chuen liqueur containing the highest level and Mei Kwei Lu the lowest. Tryptamine was found in all samples in amounts between 0.01 and 1.79 μg ml^?1. The levels of the other five amines in the tested samples were 0-7.0 μg ml^?1 for 2-phenylethylamine, 0-3.0 μg ml^?1 for putrescine, 0-2.9 μg ml^?1 for cadaverine, 0-4.5 μg ml^?1 for histamine, and 0-1.4 μg ml^?1 for tyramine. These levels seem unlikely to have adverse effects on human health.     

Content of biogenic amines and polyamines in beers from the Czech Republic

Altogether 114 samples of alcoholic and non‐alcoholic bottled beer produced in 28 breweries in the Czech Republic were monitored for levels of biogenic amines (BA) and polyamines (PA). The beers were analysed immediately after purchase and then at the end of the best‐before period (storage temperature 8 ± 1 °C). The concentrations of histamine, phenylethylamine and tryptamine in the studied samples were very low (mostly under 30 mg L^?1). The studied PA spermine and spermidine also occurred in small amounts. Nevertheless, the levels of tyramine, putrescine and cadaverine reached significant values, especially in alcoholic beers. In almost 25% of the tested samples of alcoholic beers (at the end of the best‐before period), the total amount of all the monitored BA and PA exceeded the ‘healthy’ level of 100 mg L^?1, which is considered toxicologically significant, especially in alcoholic beverages. Copyright © 2012 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling     

Biogenic and volatile amines in Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) stored at different temperatures

Biogenic amines, total volatile base nitrogen (TVB‐N) and trimethylamine nitrogen (TMA‐N) concentrations in the muscle of postmortem Chinese mitten crab stored at 4 and 20 °C were studied. Among five biogenic amines, histamine, tyramine, tryptamine, putrescine and cadaverine, histamine was the main biogenic amine formed during the storage time and reached highest levels of 91.22 mg kg^?1 after 72 h at 4 °C and 181.23 mg kg^?1 after 24 h at 20 °C. Histamine could be used a safety index for crab. The levels of other biogenic amines were less than 10 mg kg^?1 and fluctuated with storage time. TVB‐N and TMA‐N levels did not change greatly throughout 72 h storage at refrigerated temperature. TVB‐N and TMA‐N were not considered to be reliable indicators of the freshness of crab.     

Biogenic Amine Content of New York State Wines

Biogenic amines in New York State wines were determined using high pressure liquid chromatography. Histamine, putrescine, and cadaverine were present in detectable amounts in all samples. Tyramine was present in low concentrations compared to other studies. Red wines, in general, had a higher histamine content than white wines. White wines had higher putrescine, cadaverine, and tyramine levels than the red wines. Histamine and cadaverine were lower in sparkling wines compared to still wines. Fermentation temperature had little influence on amine formation. Amine levels in various locations within New York State showed considerable variations. There were differences due to variety and vinification processes.     

Effects of reduced levels of sulfite in wine production using mixtures with lysozyme and dimethyl dicarbonate on levels of volatile and biogenic amines

Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) is an important preservative for wine, but its presence in foods can cause allergies and this has given impetus to the research for alternatives. The aim of this study was to reduce levels of sulfite in wine production using mixtures with lysozyme and dimethyl dicarbonate and examine the influence on levels of volatile and biogenic amines. To do so, vinifications were carried out using lysozyme, dimethyl dicarbonate (DMDC) and mixtures of these with SO₂ in different concentrations (25 and 50 mg l^?1). Results were compared with a control vinification with only SO₂ (50 mg l^?1). Mixing low concentrations of SO₂ with lysozyme and DMDC reduced the concentration of biogenic amines (histamine, tyramine, putrescine, cadaverine, phenylethylamine + spermidine and spermine). In general, the total concentration of volatile amines (dimethylamine, isopropylamine, isobutylamine, pyrrolidine, ethylamine, diethylamine, amylamine and hexylamine) was higher in the sample fermented only with SO₂. The concentrations of amines with secondary amino groups (dimethylamine, diethylamine, pyrrolidine) were higher in the sample only fermented with SO₂ than those fermented with DMDC and lysozyme or with a mixture of preservatives. When SO₂ was the only preservative in wine, total amine concentration (biogenic and volatile amines) was higher than for the rest of the treatments. Lysozyme by itself, and lysozyme mixed with SO₂, both reduced the formation of biogenic amines but given the antioxidant activity of SO₂ the use of the preservative mixture seems more advisable.     

Biogenic amines in commercially produced Yulu,a Chinese fermented fish sauce

Seven biogenic amines were determined in 35 commercially produced Yulu samples from three provinces of China by pre-column derivatisation with dansyl chloride (Dns-Cl) and high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). Putrescine, cadaverine, histamine and tyramine were the major biogenic amines (more than 100 mg kg^?1), while tryptamine, spermidine and spermine were regarded as minor biogenic amines (less than 25 mg kg^?1). Twenty samples contained more than 50 mg kg^?1 histamine (the limit for histamine in seafood products as suggested by the Food and Drug Administration). Twenty-one samples contained more than 100 mg kg^?1 tyramine and 10 contained more than 1000 mg kg^?1 total biogenic amines. This study provided data on biogenic amine levels in Chinese fermented fish sauce. The results suggested that biogenic amine content should be monitored in commercially produced Yulu.     

Levels of biogenic amines in typical vegetable products

Biogenic amines were determined in frozen spinach purée, ketchup, concentrated tomato pasta and frozen green pea as N-benzamides, by micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography. Putrescine and spermidine were observed in most samples at detectable levels, while histamine, spermine and cadaverine concentrations were frequently below detection limits. Maximum mean levels (33.6 and 52.5 mg kg⁻¹ of tyramine and putrescine, respectively) were found in ketchup and 46.6 mg kg⁻¹ of spermidine in pea. Levels of histamine and spermine were low, and those of cadaverine and tryptamine low or medium. Thus, biogenic amines in the observed vegetable products should not be of a risk for healthy consumers.     

Method development and cultivar-related differences of nine biogenic amines in Ontario wines

We have developed a new high-performance liquid chromatographic method using pre-column derivatization with orthophthalaldehyde, gradient elution and fluorescence detection to assay the concentrations of nine biogenic amines in wines: histamine, 1-methylhistamine, methylamine, ethylamine, tyramine, tryptamine, 2-phenylethylamine, putrescine and cadaverine. The method shows excellent analytical characteristics. It has been used to measure the concentration of these biogenic amines in 73 monovarietal wines from five red and six white cultivars. All wines were from the Niagara viticultural region of southern Ontario and were certified as to origin. Pinot noir wines had the highest content of total amines, and also of histamine, putrescine, cadaverine, ethylamine and 1-methylhistamine. Among the white wines, those from Chardonnay had the highest content of total amines and also of histamine, tyramine, methylamine and 1-methylhistamine. It is suggested that longer ageing as well as Sur-lie fermentation (Chardonnay) can account, at least in part, for these findings.     

Biogenic amines in food: effects of histamine, tyramine and phenylethylamine in the human

The effect of 25 mg histamine, 25 mg tyramine and 5 mg phenylethylamine resp. in apple juice on 27 healthy volunteers was studied using a randomized placebo-controlled double-blind procedure. No statistically significant effect was found with histamine and tyramine, but phenylethylamine produced symptoms like headache, dizziness and discomfort in some volunteers. In a second experiment the effect of four different wines (2 dl) containing naturally several biogenic amines in various amounts (histamine n.d. - 21 ppm; tyramine 1-23 ppm; phenylethylamine n.d. - 6 ppm; putrescine 2-55 ppm) on 20 volunteers was recorded. The percentage of volunteers experiencing symptoms was of the same order of magnitude as in the first experiment. No correlation was found to exist in this second experiment between the occurrence of symptoms and the concentration of biogenic amines in the wine samples.     

Monitoring of biogenic amines in cheeses manufactured at small-scale farms and in fermented dairy products in the Czech Republic

The aim of the study was the monitoring of six biogenic amines (histamine, tyramine, phenylethylamine, tryptamine, putrescine, and cadaverine) and two polyamines (spermidine and spermine) in 112 samples of dairy products purchased in the Czech Republic, namely in 55 cheeses made in small-scale farms and in 57 fermented dairy products. The products were tested at the end of their shelf-life period. Neither tryptamine nor phenylethylamine was detected in the monitored samples; histamine was found only in four cheese samples containing up to 25 mg/kg. The contents of spermine and spermidine were low and did not exceed the values of 35 mg/kg. Significant amounts of tyramine, putrescine, and cadaverine occurred especially in cheeses produced from ewe’s milk or in long-term ripened cheeses. In about 10% of the tested cheeses, the total concentration of all the monitored biogenic amines and polyamines exceeded the level of 200 mg/kg, which can be considered toxicologically significant. In fermented dairy products, the tested biogenic amines occurred in relatively low amounts (generally up to 30 mg/kg) that are regarded safe for the consumer’s health.     

Determination of Biogenic Amines in Herby Cheese

Herby cheese (Otlu peynir) is widely produced and consumed in eastern parts of Turkey, and is generally made from sheep milk. The biogenic amines and organic acids content, microbiological, and chemical properties of Herby cheese were determined on 30 samples obtained from retail markets in East Anatolia Region, Turkey. The most important biogenic amines were tyramine (range 18.0–1125.5 mg kg^?1), followed by cadaverine varied from not detected to 1844.5 mg kg^?1. Histamine content generally was found higher than 100 mg kg^?1. The concentration of amines in some cheeses was much higher than the toxic dose limits. Generally, total amine content was found high in samples that had high nitrogen fraction and organic acids value. Levels of biogenic amines were significantly correlated with the organic acids of Herby cheese. The basic organic acid was found the lactic acid ranging from 585.4 to 26480.3 mg kg^?1, followed by butyric acid varying between 314.8 and 7329.6 mg kg^?1 values. Lipolysis and nitrogen fraction were determined high in ripened Herby cheese samples. Coliform counts of samples showed lower than 100 cfu g^?1 in the samples. Significant (p < 0.01) positive correlation was observed between acetic acid and phenylethylamine, putrescine, cadaverin, histamine, and tyramine.