Deoxynivalenol exposure assessment in a cohort of pregnant women from Bradford, UK

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a ubiquitous contaminant of cereal crops in temperate regions of the world. It causes growth faltering and immune suppression in animals. Limited information is available on DON exposure in UK subpopulations. The objective of this study was to provide DON exposure assessment in a subset of pregnant women scheduled for an elective caesarean in a large multi-ethnic mother/infant birth cohort from Bradford, UK. Women aged 16-44 years (n = 85) provided a urine sample for DON analysis in the last trimester of pregnancy, and concurrently completed a food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The urinary DON biomarker was detected in all measured samples (geometric mean (GM)?= 10.3 ng DON mg(-1) creatinine, range = 0.5-116.7 ng mg(-1)). Levels were higher in women classified as South Asian in origin (GM: 15.2 ng mg(-1); 95% CI = 10.7-21.5 ng mg(-1)) compared with non-South Asians (GM = 8.6 ng mg(-1); 95% CI = 6.6-11.8 ng mg(-1)), p = 0.02). Estimated DON intake from FFQ data and typical levels of DON contamination of food suggest that this was mainly due to higher levels of exposure from bread, particularly daily intake of DON from chapattis in South Asians (estimated mean = 2.4 μg day(-1); 95% CI = 1.2, 3.7 μg day(-1)) compared with non-South Asians (estimated mean = 0.2 μg day(-1); 95% CI = 0-0.4 μg day(-1)), p < 0.001. This is the first biomarker demonstration of DON exposure in pregnant women, and several urinary DON levels were the highest ever recorded in any study. A larger survey within this birth cohort is warranted to investigate any potential risk to mothers and their babies, from DON exposure during pregnancy.     

Urine metabolite analysis as a function of deoxynivalenol exposure: an NMR-based metabolomics investigation

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a toxic fungal metabolite that frequently contaminates cereal crops including wheat, maize and barley. Despite knowledge of frequent exposure through diet, our understanding of the potential consequences of human exposure remains limited, in part due to the lack of validated exposure biomarkers. In this study, we interrogated the urinary metabolome using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to compare individuals with known low and high DON exposure through consumption of their normal diet. Urine samples from 22 adults from the UK (seven males, 15 females; age range = 21–59 years) had previously determined urinary DON levels using an established liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) assay. Urine samples were subsequently analysed using an NMR-based metabolomics approach coupled with multivariate statistical analysis. Metabolic profiling suggested that hippurate levels could be used to distinguish between groups with low (3.6 ng DON mg^?1 creatinine: 95% CI = 2.6, 5.0 ng mg^?1) and high (11.1 ng mg^?1: 95% CI = 8.1, 15.5 ng mg^?1) DON exposure, with the concentration of hippurate being significantly (1.5 times) higher for people with high DON exposure than for those with low DON exposure (p = 0.047). This, to our knowledge, is the first report of a metabolomics-derived biomarker of DON exposure in humans.     

Occurrence and intake of deoxynivalenol in cereal-based products marketed in Korea during 2007–2008

The occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON) was investigated in 514 cereal-based products (corn-based, n = 125; barley-based, n = 96; wheat-based, n = 94; rice-based, n = 199) marketed in Korea during 2007?2008, and estimates of DON intake were determined. Samples were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet light (UV) detection after immunoaffinity clean-up. The limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantification (LOQ) were 2.2 and 5.6 µg kg^–1, respectively. Recoveries and repeatability expressed as coefficients of variation (CV) were 82.3–100% and 2.4–15.3% in beer, bread and dried corn. The incidences and mean levels of DON were 56% and 68.9 µg kg^?1 for corn-based products, 49% and 24.1 µg kg^?1 for wheat-based products, 43% and 7.5 µg kg^?1 for barley-based products, and 16% and 3.4 µg kg^?1 for rice-based products, respectively. The estimated daily intake of DON from the consumption of rice-based, wheat-based, barley-based and corn-based products were 0.0038 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, 0.0032 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, 0.0015 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1 and 0.0002 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, respectively. These values represent 0.38%, 0.32%, 0.25% and 0.01% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 1 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. These results indicate that rice-based products are major contributors to DON exposure in Korea, even though the current exposure level is unlikely to cause adverse health effects.     

Natural occurrence of type-B trichothecene mycotoxins in Korean cereal-based products

Type-B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), fusarenone-X (FUS-X), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15ADON), and 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3ADON)) were determined in 338 cereal-based products. Detection limit, quantification limit and mean recovery for five toxins were in the ranges 0.7–2.6?µg?kg^?1, 2.1–7.8?µg?kg^?1 and 73–110%, respectively. The range of occurrence and average level in samples were, respectively, 21–88% and 5.2–121.8?µg?kg^?1 for NIV, 10–96% and 1.7–109.5?µg?kg^?1 for DON, 2–39% and 0.4–3.6?µg?kg^?1 for FUS-X, 0–80% and 0–17.3?µg?kg^?1 for 15ADON, and 0–29% and 0–1.5?µg?kg^?1 for 3ADON. Regarding co-occurrence, 64% of samples had more than two type-B trichothecenes. The estimated daily intakes of NIV, DON, FUS-X, 15ADON, and 3ADON were 0.077, 0.048, 0.004, 0.006 and 0.002?µg?kg^?1?bw?day^?1, respectively. These results suggest that current exposure levels do not indicate the possibility of adverse effects, but consideration of the combined exposure of type-B trichothecenes may be required due to the high frequency of co-occurrence.     

NovaSil clay does not affect the concentrations of vitamins A and E and nutrient minerals in serum samples from Ghanaians at high risk for aflatoxicosis

To assess the potential interference of NovaSil (NS) clay with micronutrients in humans, vitamins A and E and minerals (15 nutrient and 15 non-nutrient minerals) were measured in serum samples from a 3-month intervention trial with NS. Participants (n?=?177) were randomly divided into three groups that received 3.0 g NS day^?1 (high dose, HD), 1.5 g NS day^?1 (low dose, LD), or placebo (PL). Levels of vitamins A and E in serum were comparable among the three study groups at baseline, 1 month and 3 months of NS intervention. Gender-stratified non-parametric mixed-effect model analysis showed no significant effects of dose and dose–time interaction for levels of vitamins A and E. A significant time effect was detected; however, it was limited to an increase in vitamin E in the male participants over the course of the study. No significant differences were found in levels of the nutrient and non-nutrient minerals between the HD and PL groups at baseline and 3 months of NS intervention, except for strontium levels. Strontium was significantly increased (p?<?0.001) in the HD group (male?=?113.65?±?28.00 µg l^?1; female?=?116.40?±?24.26 µg l^?1) compared with the PL group (male?=?83.55?±?39.90 µg l^?1; female?=?90.47?±?25.68 µg l^?1) following the 3-month intervention with NS. These results, combined with safety and efficacy data, confirm that NS clay is highly effective in reducing aflatoxin exposure and acts as a selective enterosorbent that does not affect the serum concentrations of important vitamins and nutrient minerals in humans.     

Dietary acrylamide exposure among Finnish adults and children: the potential effect of reduction measures

A deterministic exposure assessment using the Nusser method that adjusts for within-subject variation and for nuisance effects among Finnish children and adults was carried out. The food consumption data covered 2038 adults (25–74 years old) and 1514 children of 1, 3 and 6 years of age, with the data on foods’ acrylamide content obtained from published Finnish studies. We found that acrylamide exposure was highest among the 3-year-old children (median?=?1.01?µg?kg^?1?bw^?day^?1, 97.5th percentile?=?1.95?µg?kg^?1?bw^?day^?1) and lowest among 65–74-year-old women (median?=?0.31?µg?kg^?1?bw^?day^?1, 97.5th percentile?=?0.69?µg?kg^?1?bw^?day^?1). Among adults, the most important source of acrylamide exposure was coffee, followed by casseroles rich in starch, then rye bread. Among children, the most important sources were casseroles rich in starch and then biscuits and, finally, chips and other fried potatoes. Replacing lightly roasted coffee with dark-roasted, swapping sweet wheat buns for biscuits, and decreasing the acrylamide content of starch-based casseroles and rye bread by 50% would result in a 50% decrease in acrylamide exposure in adults. Among children, substituting boiled potatoes for chips and other friend potatoes and replacing biscuits with sweet wheat buns while lowering the acrylamide content of starch-based casseroles by 50% would lead to acrylamide exposure that is only half of the original exposure. In conclusions, dietary modifications could have a large impact in decreasing acrylamide exposure.     

Immunoassay based on monoclonal antibodies versus LC-MS: deoxynivalenol in wheat and flour in Southern Brazil

An indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method using a monoclonal antibody for deoxynivalenol (DON) detection in wheat and flour was standardised and validated (detection limit?=?177.1?µg?kg^?1) and its performance was compared with LC-MS, quantification limit?=140?µg?kg^?1). DON recovery ranged from 88.7% to 122.6% for wheat grain and from 70.6% to 139.3% for flour. Among the 38 wheat samples evaluated, DON was detected in 29 samples (76.3%) by ic-ELISA (281.6–12?291.4?µg?kg^?1) and in 22 samples (57.9%) by LC-MS (155.3–9906.9?µg?kg^?1). The 0.93 correlation coefficient between ic-ELISA and LC-MS data in 19 positive DON wheat samples demonstrated the reliability and efficiency of ic-ELISA. Results indicated that standardised ic-ELISA was suitable for DON screening in wheat samples and the need for continuous monitoring of mycotoxin levels in foodstuffs.     

Dietary exposure to acrylamide from potato crisps to the Spanish population

Potato crisps are one of the food commodities that contribute most to overall dietary human exposure of acrylamide. This investigation has estimated the dietary exposure to acrylamide form potato crisps in the Spanish population. Sampling of potato crisps (n = 36) from 16 different producers were carried out in March 2008. An average level of 740 µg kg^?1 (ranging from 81 to 2622 µg kg^?1; minimum to maximum) and a median of 592 µg kg^?1 were obtained. Acrylamide levels in marketed potato crisps have been significantly reduced (nearly to 50%) compared with a previous sampling performed 4 years earlier. The observed signal value (90th percentile) was 1377 µg kg^?1 with 86% of the samples with acrylamide levels lower than 1000 µg kg^?1. Dietary exposure to acrylamide from potato crisp consumption in the total Spanish population was estimated to be 0.042 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 by using a deterministic approach based on the National consumption database. In a second study, dietary exposure (based on a 3-day food record) was determined to be 0.053 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for the adult population (17–60 years) and 0.142 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for children (7–12 years). The contribution of potato crisps to the estimated dietary acrylamide exposure of the Spanish population is moderate as compared with other European Member States.     

Stability of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) during the production of flour-based foods and wheat flake cereal

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin found in cereal grains and cereal-based foods. DON concentrations in finished products are reduced under some processing conditions, but not others. DON concentrations in flour, wheat and selected foods made from them under commercially relevant conditions were compared by GC with electron capture detection. Average concentrations (n?=?9/item) in cookies, crackers and pretzels ranged from 61% (cookies) to 111% (pretzels) compared with flour (100%?=?0.46?µg?g^?1). Lesser amounts were found in donuts and bread: their respective DON concentrations were 44% and 30% that of flour. Mass balance estimates for DON (µg?g^?1 flour equivalents) ranged from 50% (bread?=?0.23?µg?g^?1 flour equivalents) to 120% (donuts), indicating that dilution by recipe ingredients contributed to DON reductions in bread and accounted for all of the apparent reduction in donuts. Mass balance estimates averaged 76% (crackers) to 107% (pretzels) for the other flour products. DON concentrations were higher in cereal flakes (0.55?µg?g^?1 in the finished product and 0.58?µg?g^?1 on a mass balance basis) than in wheat (0.40?µg?g^?1), suggesting that DON concentrations might increase during processing of wheat cereals under some conditions. In summary, DON concentrations of finished food products were reduced?≥50% only in bread and donuts. Reduction in bread resulted from a combination of DON ‘loss’ and dilution by recipe ingredients whereas the reduction in donuts was due entirely to dilution. These results are further evidence of DON stability during the preparation of popular flour or wheat-based products.     

Survey of deoxynivalenol and its conjugates deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol in 374 beer samples

Beer is one of the most popular beverages worldwide. Malted cereal grains are among the basic ingredients and hence mycotoxin contamination might occur. Previous studies reported the presence of the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3ADON), as well as of the masked mycotoxin deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (D3G) in beer. In the present survey, 374?beer samples from 38?countries with a focus on Austrian (156) and German (64) beers were analysed for the presence of D3G, DON and 3ADON. Beers were assigned to the following six categories: pale (217), wheat (46), dark (47), bock (20), nonalcoholic beers (19) and shandies (25). In total, 348 and 289 beers (93 and 77%, respectively) contained D3G and DON at the levels above the limit of detection, whereas 3ADON was not detected in any of the samples. Average concentrations of all beers were 6.9?µg?L^?1 for D3G and 8.4?µg?L^?1 in the case of DON. Nonalcoholic beers and shandies showed the lowest contaminations, 1.5 and 3.2?µg?L^?1 for D3G and 2.7 and 4.4?µg?L^?1 for DON, respectively. In bock beers characterised by a higher gravity, a significant trichothecene load of 14.8?µg?L^?1 D3G and 12.4?µg?L^?1 DON was found. The highest contamination (81?µg?L^?1 D3G, 89?µg?L^?1 DON) was detected in a pale beer from Austria, underlining the importance of this study for food safety. The molar D3G to DON ratio ranged between 0.11 and 1.25 and was 0.56 on average. Concluding, the average contamination of beer is not of toxicological concern for moderate beer drinkers. However, in the case of heavy beer drinkers, beer consumption may considerably contribute to the overall intake of DON, which might even lead to exceeding the maximum tolerable limits established for this Fusarium toxin.     

Ethyl carbamate in fermented foods and beverages: dietary exposure of the Hong Kong population in 2007–2008

To evaluate the potential public health risk of ethyl carbamate (EC), EC exposure from fermented foods and beverages for Hong Kong population was estimated. In 276 samples analysed, EC was detected (limit of detection (LOD) at 0.4?µg?kg^?1) in 202 samples (73%), with higher levels in fermented red bean curd (150–650?µg?kg^?1) and yellow wine (140–390?µg?kg^?1), while low or non-detected (ND) in preserved vegetables (ND–10?µg?kg^?1) and fermented tea (ND–15?µg?kg^?1). The estimated dietary exposure from all fermented foods and beverages was 8.27?ng?kg^?1?bw?day^?1, while exposure excluding alcoholic beverages was 5.42?ng?kg^?1?bw?day^?1, with calculated margins of exposure (MOEs) at 3.6?×?10⁴ and 5.5?×?10⁴ respectively. The risk of adverse health effects was low for the average population but higher (MOE?of?10³) for high consumers of alcoholic beverages especially habitual drinkers of alcoholic types with high EC contents.     

Toxicity profile of commercially produced indigenous banana beer

Mycotoxins, together with endotoxins, represent important classes of naturally occurring contaminants in food products, posing significant health risks to consumers. The aim of this study is to investigate the occurrence of both Fusarium mycotoxins and endotoxins in commercially produced traditional banana beer. Two brands of commercially produced traditional banana beer were collected from a local retail market in Kigali, Rwanda. Beer samples were analysed for the presence of deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B₁ and zearalenone (ZEA), using an enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA) method. The quantification of bacterial endotoxin using Limulus amoeboecyte lysate (LAL) assay was also conducted. The contamination levels were 20 and 6.7?µg?kg^?1 for DON; 34 and 31.3?µg?kg^?1 for FB₁; 0.66 and 2.2?µg?kg^?1 for ZEA in brands A and B of the beers, respectively. Results indicate that the levels of Fusarium toxins and bacterial endotoxin reported in this study did not pose adverse human health effects as a result of drinking/consuming banana beer. However, exposure to low/sub-threshold doses or non-toxic levels of endotoxins magnifies the toxic effect of xenobiotic agents (e.g. fungal toxins) on liver and other target organs. Considering Fusarium toxins and/or endotoxin contamination levels in other agricultural commodities intended for human consumption, health risks might be high and the condition is aggravated when beer is contaminated by mixtures of the mycotoxins, as indicated in this study.     

Toxicity assay for deoxynivalenol using Caenorhabditis elegans

The progeny production and development rates of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans when treated with deoxynivalenol (DON) were examined. Both purified DON and a crude extract from Fusarium graminearum cultured on rice were tested on C. elegans wild-type (Bristol N2) and a mutant strain (AU1). Significant effects (Tukey-HSD, p?<?0.05) on brood size and the rate of larval development from egg to adulthood were observed. Both N2 and AU1 strains showed lower rates of development and smaller brood sizes when exposed to purified DON at concentrations of 500 and 1000?µg?ml^?1 When they were exposed to crude extract containing 250?µg?ml^?1 DON, the inhibition of egg hatching and a greatly reduced development rate were observed. The results suggest that selection of a more sensitive C. elegans mutant strain could be used as a suitable animal model for conducting DON toxicity assays.     

Survey of 11 mycotoxins in wheat flour in Hebei province,China

A survey of 11 mycotoxins in 348 wheat flour samples marketed in Hebei province of China were analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, was carried out. The selected mycotoxins consisted of four aflatoxins (AFs: AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁ and AFG₂) and seven Fusarium toxins, i.e. deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, zearalenone, Fusarenon-X and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside. Results indicated that most of the wheat samples analysed were contaminated with mycotoxins. Wheat was most susceptible to DON (91.4% contamination), with a mean level of 240 μg kg^?1. On average the probable daily intake (PDI, expressed as µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1) of mycotoxins was within the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI, 2.0 µg kg^?1 of body weight day^?1) as set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Nevertheless, exposure assessment revealed that the maximum PDI of mycotoxins was 4.06 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1, which was twice the PMTDI value. Thus, consistent monitoring is recommended, as to keep the contamination level under control.     

Simulation of deoxynivalenol intake from wheat consumption in Japan using the Monte Carlo method

The aim of this study was to evaluate the current advisory level in Japan for deoxynivalenol (DON) in foods. To this end, we estimated the intake of DON based on its presence in wheat using a probabilistic computer simulation method. Values for the concentration of DON in wheat were based on those reported in surveys of 638 wheat samples conducted from 2002 to 2004. Data regarding consumption of 108 wheat-based products according to age group were obtained from the 2002 Japan national survey on food consumption. Two data sets on the consumption of wheat-based products and contamination of DON in wheat were analysed using three DON regulatory scenarios: no regulation, 1100 µg?kg^?1 and 2000?µg?kg^?1. Because consumption distributions contained two peaks for each age category, it was assumed that two log-normal distributions for each age category were needed to achieve a better fit to the distribution models. The results of simulated DON intake using the Monte Carlo method showed that children aged 1–6 years have the highest DON intake. However, the 95th percentile of simulated intake of DON in each age group was below the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 1?µg?kg^?1 body weight using any regulation scenario. The 99th percentile of simulated DON intake in the 1–6-year-old group was greater than TDI at approximately 2?µg?kg^?1 body weight. These results suggest that the current dietary intake of DON from wheat consumption does not exert a significant health effect, but we may need to reconsider the current regulation value for the 1–6-year-old age group. In addition, we may need a better method to fit the distribution to the log-normal distribution better.     

Occurrence and risk assessment of population exposed to deoxynivalenol in foods derived from wheat flour in Brazil

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most important of the trichothecenes in terms of amounts and occurrence in wheat. This compound was shown to be associated with a glomerulonephropathy involving an increase of immunoglobulin A in humans. This study assessed the occurrence of DON in wheat flour and the exposure of Brazilian teenagers, adults and elderly to this mycotoxin due to intake of wheat flour-based products. DON extraction in wheat flour was carried out by solid phase extraction and the quantification was performed by ultra-high proficiency liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. A total of 77.9% of all samples were positive for DON, with concentrations ranging from 73.50 to 2794.63 µg kg^?1. The intake was calculated for the average and 90th percentile of the contamination levels of DON in foods based-wheat for teenagers, adults and elderly in Brazil, and compared with the provisional maximum tolerable daily intakes (PMTDI). Females of all age groups were exposed to DON at higher levels when compared to males in regard of consumption of breads and pastas. Teenagers were the main consumers of foods derived from wheat flour, with maximum probable daily intakes of 1.28 and 1.20 µg kg^?1 b.w. day^?1 for females and males, respectively. This population is at an increased risk of exposure to DON due to consumption of wheat flour-based foods in Brazil.     

Concentrations and exposure estimates of deoxynivalenol in wheat products from Argentina

The aim of this work was to determine deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination in wheat-based food products in Argentina and to estimate DON exposure. The numbers of samples were determined according to a developed sampling plan. A total of 156 samples of different wheat products were randomly collected from food markets in Luján, Argentina, and analyzed for DON by gas chromatography. DON contamination ranged 7–271?ng?g^?1 for French bread, 5–149?ng?g^?1 for Vienna bread, 11–85?ng?g^?1 for crackers, 8–85?ng?g^?1 for pizza, and was 79?ng?g^?1 for noodles. The maximum contribution to DON intake was 7% of the PMTDI for French bread; the minimum was less than 1% for noodles. Assuming all groups had eaten all sampled foods and summing all groups’ intake contribution, the highest estimate DON exposure would only be <14% (for the 18–24-year old men group) of the DON daily dietary intake.     

Assessment of the dietary habits and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure in primary school children

Thirty Italian children, 7–9 year aged, living in Naples were investigated on their dietary habits and on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure by a food diary-questionnaire and one week duplicate diet sample analyses. Daily total food consumption mean value was 632 ± 215 g day^?1, median value 613 g day^?1. The daily energy intake and the diet composition meanly agreed with the official guidelines for the Italian children. Sixteen PAHs were simultaneously detected and, according to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approach, benzo[a]pyrene; benzo[a]pyrene + chrysene (PAH2); PAH2 + benz[a]anthracene + benzo[b]fluoranthene (PAH4); PAH4 + benzo[k]fluoranthene + benzo[ghi]perylene + dibenz[a, h]anthracene + indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (PAH8) were considered in evaluating the children's dietary exposure to PAHs. The benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) median concentrations in foods varied from 0.06 to 0.33 µg kg^?1. Only three samples of cooked foods (one fish and two meat samples) exceeded legal limits fixed by the European Union for BaP. Daily median intakes of benzo[a]pyrene, PAH2, PAH4, and PAH8 were 153; 318; 990; 1776 ng day^?1; their median exposure values were 5; 10; 28; 54 ng kg^?1 bw day^?1. The Margins of Exposure (MOEs) in median consumers agreed with the EFSA safety values except for PAH8.     

Dietary exposure to chloropropanols of secondary school students in Hong Kong

This paper reports levels of 3-monochloropropan-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) in a wide range of food items and estimates their dietary exposure for secondary school students in Hong Kong. Dietary exposure to chloropropanols was estimated using local food consumption data obtained from secondary school students in 2000 and the concentrations of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP in food samples taken from the local market. The dietary exposure to 3-MCPD for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.063–0.150 µg kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.152–0.300 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. Both estimates fell below the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 µg kg^?1 bw established by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and amounted to less than 20% of this safety reference value. The dietary exposure to 1,3-DCP for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.003–0.019 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.009–0.040 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. The resulting margins of exposures were of low concern for human health. It could be concluded that both the average and high secondary school student consumers were unlikely to experience major toxicological effects of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP.