Lead exposure from food: the German LExUKon project

Lead is a highly toxic contaminant with food being the major source of exposure for the general public. The second German food consumption survey (Nationale Verzehrsstudie II – NVS II) with about 20 000 participants (15 371 for dietary history interviews used for this study) allowed for an updated exposure assessment for the German population. Based on these comprehensive data, information on consumption of 545 individual food items by the German population was generated. Lead concentrations in food were compiled from the German food monitoring programme, European countries’ authority programmes and the published literature, covering the years from 2000 to 2009, and were multiplied with consumption data to obtain estimates of lead intake from food. Average lead concentrations per main food group were highest for meat (including offal), followed by fish (including seafood), vegetables and cereals. Due to high consumption, beverages contributed most to the intake of the general public, followed by main groups vegetables, fruits & nuts and cereals. Lead intake from food was estimated to be 0.53 and 0.72 µg kg^–1 bw and day for average and high-end consumers, respectively. This is close to (average consumers) respectively above (high-end consumers) a reference value derived from a recent health risk evaluation performed by EFSA, using the benchmark approach. Uncertainties in these estimates pertain to the influence of values below the limit of quantification and some foods not considered due to lacking occurrence data. In conclusion, the estimated lead intake of the German population from food is still close to health-based reference values. Further efforts to reduce lead intake are required.     

Dietary intake of dioxins,furans and dioxin-like PCBs in Austria

Human exposure to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like PCBs (dl-PCBs) should be assessed regularly. In order to evaluate the contamination levels in various food products on the Austrian market and to assess the dietary exposure of the Austrian population for the first time, a national monitoring programme was conducted from 2005 to 2011. The 235 food products comprised meat, poultry, game and offal, fish and fish products, milk and dairy products, eggs, animal fats and vegetable oils. To estimate the dietary intakes of PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs, mean concentrations in food were combined with the respective food consumption data from the Austrian food consumption survey. Estimated dietary intakes were expressed as toxic equivalents (WHO-TEQs 1998). The mean intakes for PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs were estimated as 0.77, 0.75 and 0.61 pg WHO-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1 for children, women and men, respectively. The main contributors to total intake were milk and dairy products followed by fish and fish products for children and women, and meat, poultry, game and offal for men (65% and 15% for children, 67% and 14% for women, and 63% and 19% for men, respectively). Comparison of the estimated dietary intakes with the toxicological reference values shows that both children and adults are well below those values.     

Exposure to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) through the consumption of prepared meals in Italy

Diet is a relevant source of exposure to environmental pollutants. Dietary intake of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) by the Italian population was assessed through a duplicate diet study on prepared meals. Baby food composite representative of the diet of toddlers aged 9–12 months and school canteen servings from four towns in Italy representing the diet of children aged 4–9 years were collected on a 5-day basis. Similarly, 5-day lunches from an office canteen, 7-day lunches from a hotel-school, three fast food meals, and eight duplicate 1-day meals of individuals (one vegetarian) were selected to represent the diet of adults aged above 18 years. Servings from each diet were then pooled to form a composite and analysed. Dietary intake was estimated from the resulting contaminant levels in composites combined with age-related food consumption data from national survey. The mean upper bound (UB) intakes for cumulative PCDDs, PCDFs, and DL-PCBs were 0.67, 0.63–0.92, and 0.27–0.63 pg WHO₂₀₀₅-TE kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1 for toddlers, children and adults, respectively. BDE-47 (UB) ng kg^?1 bw day^?1 estimates were 2.75 in toddlers, 0.08–0.16 in children and 0.03–0.09 in adults. Similarly, for BDE-99 higher UB intakes (ng kg^?1 bw day^?1) resulted in toddlers (1.26), than those in children (0.06–0.08) and adults (0.03–0.10), respectively. The above estimates fall below the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) (14 WHO₂₀₀₅-TE kg^?1 bw day^?1) established by the European Union Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) for PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs. The margin of exposure (MOE = 3) of toddlers to BDE-99 clearly indicates this age group as target for a risk-oriented approach. This study is proposed as a first cost-effective screening in PCDD, PCDF, DL-PCB and PBDE intake assessment, with a focus also on time trends.     

Cadmium exposure from food: the German LExUKon project

Cadmium is a very toxic contaminant with food being the major source of exposure for the general public. The second German food consumption survey (Nationale Verzehrsstudie II – NVS II) with about 20 000 participants (15 371 for dietary history interviews used for this study) allowed for an updated exposure assessment for the German population. Based on these comprehensive data, information on the consumption of 545 individual food items by the German population was generated. Cadmium concentrations in food were compiled from the German food monitoring programme, European countries’ authority programmes and the published literature, covering the years from 1993 to 2008, and were multiplied with consumption data to obtain estimates of cadmium intake from food. Consumption-weighted mean cadmium concentrations per main food group were highest for cereals, followed by oily seeds & fruits, and vegetables. Due to both high consumption and considerable occurrence of cadmium, cereals and vegetables contributed most to the intake of the general public, followed by the main groups beverages, fruits & nuts, and dairy products (including milk). Cadmium intake from food was estimated to be 1.46 and 2.35 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1 for average and high-end consumers, respectively. This corresponds to 58% for average and 95% for high-end consumers, respectively, of a reference value derived from a recent health risk evaluation performed by EFSA, using the benchmark approach. Uncertainties in these estimates pertain to the influence of values below the limit of quantification and some foods not considered due to lacking occurrence data. In conclusion, the estimated cadmium intake of the German population from food is still close to health-based reference values. Further efforts to reduce cadmium intake are required.     

Contamination of food samples from Malaysia with polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans and estimation of human intake

A total of 126 food samples, categorised into three groups (seafood and seafood products, meat and meat products, as well as milk and dairy products) from Malaysia were analysed for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs). The concentration of PCDD/Fs that ranged from 0.16 to 0.25 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ g^?1 fw was found in these samples. According to the food consumption data from the Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) of the World Health Organization (WHO), the dietary exposures to PCDD/F from seafood and seafood products, meat and meat products, as well as milk and dairy products for the general population in Malaysia were 0.064, 0.183 and 0.736 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1, respectively. However, the exposure was higher in seafood and seafood products (0.415 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1) and meat and meat products (0.317 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1) when the data were estimated using the Malaysian food consumption statistics. The lower exposure was observed in dairy products with an estimation of 0.365 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1. Overall, these dietary exposure estimates were much lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) as recommended by WHO. Thus, it is suggested that the dietary exposure to PCDD/F does not represent a risk for human health in Malaysia.     

Dietary exposure and risk assessment of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins,polychlorinated dibenzofurans and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls of the population in the Region of Valencia (Spain)

Dietary exposure of the Valencia Region population to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and PCBs was assessed in the Region of Valencia in 2010–2011. A total of 7700 food samples were collected. Occurrence data were combined with consumption data to estimate dietary exposure in adults (>15 years of age) and young people (6–15 years of age). The estimated intake was calculated by a probabilistic approach. Average intake levels (upper-bound scenario) were 1.58 and 2.76 pg toxic equivalent (TEQ) kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1 for adults and young people, respectively. These average intakes are within range of the tolerable daily intake of 1–4 pg WHO-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1 recommended by WHO, and slightly above the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of 14 pg TEQ kg^?1 bw week^?1 and the Provisional tolerable monthly intake of 70 pg TEQ kg^?1 bw month^?1 set by the Scientific Committee on Food and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food, respectively. These results show that the contamination levels in food and therefore the exposure of the general population to PCDD/Fs and PCBs have declined in this region and therefore show the efficiency of the European risk-management measures. In terms of risk characterisation, the results showed that, under the upper-bound scenario, 22% of the adult and 58% of the young people population could exceed the TWI.     

Dietary exposure to dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs of Hong Kong adults: results of the first Hong Kong Total Diet Study

Dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent organic pollutants (POPs) covered by the Stockholm Convention on POPs. To assess the associated health risk of the Hong Kong population, the dietary exposure of the Hong Kong population and various age–gender subgroups to dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs was estimated in the first Hong Kong Total Diet Study (TDS), where food samples were collected and prepared “as consumed”. A total of 142 composite food samples, mainly foods of animal origin and their products and oily food, were analysed for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and dioxin-like PCBs by the high-resolution gas chromatograph/high-resolution mass spectrometer (HRGC/HRMS) system. Dietary exposures were estimated by combining the analytical results with the food consumption data of Hong Kong adults. The mean and 95th percentile exposures to dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs of the Hong Kong population were 21.9 and 59.7 pg toxic equivalent (TEQ) kg^?1 body weight (bw) month^?1 respectively, which amounted to 31.3% and 85.2% of the provisional tolerable monthly intake (PTMI). The main dietary source of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs was “Fish and seafood and their products” (61.9% of the total exposure), followed by “Meat, poultry and game and their products” (20.0%) and “Mixed dishes” (6.95%). The study findings suggest that the Hong Kong population is unlikely to experience the major undesirable health effects of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs.     

Exposure of the adult population resident in Ireland to dioxins and PCBs from the diet

Irish monitoring data on PCDD/Fs, DL-PCBs and marker PCBs were collated and combined with Irish adult food consumption data to estimate dietary background exposure of adults (18–90 years of age) living in Ireland to dioxins and PCBs. The average upper-bound daily intake of dioxins total WHO TEQ (2005) (PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs) from food contaminated via the environment was estimated as 0.3 pg kg^–1 bw day^–1 and at the 95th percentile at 1 pg kg^–1 bw day^–1. The average upper-bound daily intake of sum of six marker PCBs from food contaminated via the environment was estimated at 1.6 ng kg^–1 bw day^–1 and at the 95th percentile at 6.8 ng kg^–1 bw day^–1. Dietary background exposure estimates for both dioxins and PCBs indicate that the Irish adult population has exposures below the European average, a finding which is also supported by the relatively lower levels detected in breast milk of Irish mothers compared with breast milk levels reported for other European countries. Exposure levels are below health-based guidance values and/or body burdens associated with the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) (for dioxins) or associated with a no observable adverse effect level (NOAEL) (for PCBs). Given the current toxicological knowledge, based on biomarker data and estimated dietary exposure, the authors consider that general background exposure of the Irish adult population to dioxins and PCBs is not likely to be of human health concern.     

Dietary intake of dioxins in Japan in 2016 with time trends since 1998

Total diet samples collected from seven regions throughout Japan in 2016 were analysed for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs), known collectively as dioxins. This led to estimates of the latest dietary intake of these contaminants for the general Japanese population (≥1 year old). The average daily intake of dioxins for a person weighing 50 kg, calculated at non-detected congener concentrations assumed to be equal to zero, was estimated to be 0.54 pg TEQ (toxic equivalents) kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1. This value is well below the tolerable daily intake of 4 pg TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1 for dioxins in Japan. The average intake was highest from fish and shellfish, followed by meat and eggs. The TEQ contribution of the fish and shellfish group to the total dietary TEQs was significant (89%). The DL-PCBs accounted for about 67% of the dioxin intake. The latest dioxin intake level was compared with previous estimates from total diet study results obtained annually since 1998 to determine the time trends in the dietary intake of dioxins in Japan. Overall, the average dioxin intake appeared to be decreasing gradually during the period of study. The previous average intakes of dioxins ranged from 0.58 to 1.9 pg TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1. The latest average intake was the lowest since 1998 and was about one-third of the average intake in 1998. This decreasing trend in the dietary intake of dioxins was mainly influenced by the decreased dioxin intakes from two food groups, fish and shellfish, and meat and eggs.     

Risk assessment of combined exposure to alkenylbenzenes through consumption of plant food supplements containing parsley and dill

ABSTRACT

A risk assessment was performed of parsley- and dill-based plant food supplements (PFS) containing apiol and related alkenylbenzenes. First, the levels of the alkenylbenzenes in the PFS and the resulting estimated daily intake (EDI) resulting from use of the PFS were quantified. Since most PFS appeared to contain more than one alkenylbenzene, a combined risk assessment was performed based on equal potency or using a so-called toxic equivalency (TEQ) approach based on toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for the different alkenylbenzenes. The EDIs resulting from daily PFS consumption amount to 0.74–125 µg kg^–1 bw for the individual alkenylbenzenes, 0.74–160 µg kg^–1 bw for the sum of the alkenylbenzenes, and 0.47–64 µg kg^–1 bw for the sum of alkenylbenzenes when expressed in safrole equivalents. The margins of exposure (MOEs) obtained were generally below 10,000, indicating a priority for risk management if the PFS were to be consumed on a daily basis. Considering short-term use of the PFS, MOEs would increase above 10,000, indicating low priority for risk management. It is concluded that alkenylbenzene intake through consumption of parsley- and dill-based PFS is only of concern when these PFS are used for long periods of time.     

Dietary intake assessment of caramel colours and their processing by-products 4-methylimidazole and 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxy-butylimidazole for the Chinese population

ABSTRACT

The aim of the study was to assess the dietary intake of caramel colours and their by-products 4-methylimidazole (4-MEI) and 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole (THI) for the Chinese population. Based on the typical and maximum reported use levels of caramel colours in 15 food categories, the dietary intakes of combined and single-class caramel colours of Classes I, III and IV were estimated with the food consumption data from the China National Nutrient and Health Survey. Using the mean values of 4-MEI and THI contents in Class III and Class IV Caramel colour samples, the exposures to 4-MEI and THI from dietary caramel colours were derived. The results showed that the combined and individual average dietary caramel colour intakes for the Chinese population of different age groups were estimated to be 232–60.3 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for combined caramels, 5.9–29.2 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for Class I, 7.7–29.6 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for Class III, 21.2–54.3 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for Class IV, which were far below the group acceptable daily intake (ADI) and respective ADIs. The combined intake of 4-MEI from Class III and IV caramel colours was estimated to be 3.8–5.2 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1 on average, and 12.9–27.1 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1 at 95th-97.5th percentile for the general population. The anticipated exposure to THI from Class III caramel colours was estimated to be 0.1–0.3 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1 on average and 0.5–1.7 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1 at 95th–97.5th percentile for the general population. The dietary caramel colours intakes and the exposures to 4-MEI and THI from dietary caramel colour for the Chinese population were considered to be of low health concern based on the present toxicological data. Soy sauce, vinegar and compound seasonings were found to be the main contributors to the dietary intake of caramel colours.     

Occurrence of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in eggs from free-range hens in Campania (southern Italy) and risk evaluation

ABSTRACT

Hens’ eggs collected in home-producing farms located in different areas of the Campania region of southern Italy were analysed for six NDL-polychlorobiphenyls (PCB indicators), 17 polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorodibenzofurans (PCDFs), and 12 congeners of dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs). In the investigated area, waste from civil, industrial and hospital activities was illegally dumped and in many cases burned, so the area is called the ‘Land of fire’. This illicit practice has been considered the main source of pollution in this territory and the cause of the persistent organic pollutants’ (POPs) contamination in the neighbouring lands intended for agricultural use and livestock. The results, which were obtained from the analysis of 56 samples of eggs, showed levels of contamination by dioxins and PCBs that have often exceeded the action levels set by European Union Recommendation 711/2013 and sometimes even exceeded the maximum levels set by Commission Regulation (EU) 1259/2011. The median PCDD/Fs was 0.41 pg TEQ g^?1 fat (range = 0.01–6.18 pg TEQ g^?1 fat) and the median concentration of DL-PCBs was 0.70 pg TEQ g^?1 fat (range = 0.01–14.60 pg TEQ g^?1 fat), whereas NDL-PCBs median was 7.35 ng g^?1 fat (range = 0.48–67.55 ng g^?1 fat). Nevertheless, the estimated weekly intake (EWI) calculated for consumers of eggs home produced in Campania is lower than the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) established by the European Union Scientific Committee on Food (SCF).     

Assessment of PCDD/F,PCB, OCP and BPA dietary exposure of non-breast-fed European infants

The aim of this study is to obtain data on the exposure of non-breast-fed infants to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), organochlorine pesticides (OCP), and bisphenol A (BPA) and its chlorinated derivatives through consumption of commercial infant foods with largest shares of the market in 22 European Union countries. The E-Screen bioassay was employed to assess the oestrogenicity of the baby foods and the ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) induction was measured to determine the levels of PCDD/F and PCB. Consequently, the highest total effective xenoestrogen burden (TEXB) of 73.60?pM?Eeq?g^?1 was found in the soy-based formula and the EROD bioassay was always below the limit of quantification (LOQ) (3.5?pg?g^?1). Overall, the estimated dietary exposure to BPA via commercial baby foods was lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 50?µg?kg^?1 body weight (bw). Furthermore, the findings indicated that the dietary exposure of 0–9-month-old infants through the products investigated here does not exceed the maximum TDI of 4?pg WHO-TEQ (toxic equivalents)?kg^?1 bw. However, exposure to more than 2?pg WHO-TEQ?kg^?1?bw?day^?1 might occur for 0–4-month-old infants consuming ‘starting’ hypoallergenic formula. Moreover, analysis of OCP indicated that the dietary exposure of non-breast-fed infants was not harmful. Considering the importance of early development and the vulnerability of infants and children, it is essential to determine their dietary exposure to contaminants in order to decide which efforts of risk reduction should receive highest priority.     

Migration of lead and arsenic from food contact paper into a food simulant and assessment of their consumer exposure safety

ABSTRACT

Paper is one of the most commonly used food packaging materials. During the production of packaging paper, it is possible for trace amounts of heavy metals to be incorporated as contaminants. These could migrate into food when packaging paper (food contact paper) is used for cooking, storing and eating. The aim of this study was to determine the migration of lead (Pb) and arsenic (As) from food contact paper into a food simulant and then to assess human safety through the estimated daily intake (EDI) with consumption factor. Migration tests were conducted for 310 samples using 4% acetic acid as a food simulant at 25°C for 10 min and at 95°C for 30 min. Concentrations of Pb and As in a food simulant were quantified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. LODs for Pb and As were 0.002 and 0.005 µg L^?1, respectively. The migration of Pb from food contact paper ranged from not detected (ND) to 17.5 μg L^?1 at 25°C for 10 min and from 0.10 to 25.6 μg L^?1 at 95°C for 30 min while As ranged from ND to 0.44 μg L^?1 at 25°C for 10 min and from ND to 0.87 μg L^?1 at 95°C for 30 min. The migration of Pb and As determined in this study confirm that the human exposure was within safe levels based on the EDI of food contact paper compared with the provisional tolerable weekly intake for Pb of 25 μg kg^?1 bw and for As of 15 μg kg^?1 bw.     

Estimation of methylmercury intake from the 2007 Chinese Total Diet Study

Methylmercury intake for adult males of twelve provinces in China was estimated by means of the 2007 Chinese Total Diet Study. Methylmercury levels were measured in twelve food groups of each province of four regions and was only found in the aquatic food groups. The range for methylmercury contents of aquatic foods was 3.29–31.60?µg?kg^?1, being 50–87% of total mercury. Methylmercury intakes from aquatic foods for adult males of twelve provinces ranged from 0.003 to 0.138?µg?kg^?1?bw?week^?1 with average of 0.041?µg?kg^?1?bw?week^?1, which were estimated according to methylmercury contents and corresponding aquatic food consumption. Methylmercury intakes for the Chinese population were far below the corresponding provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI), which was established by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Consequently, there was little health risk from methylmercury exposure for the average Chinese population.     

Dietary exposure of Hong Kong secondary school students to total mercury and methylmercury from fish intake

Fish is the main source of dietary exposure to methylmercury (MeHg), which is a public health concern owing to its potential neurotoxicity. To evaluate the public health risk, this study estimated the total mercury (tHg) and MeHg exposure from fish intake in Hong Kong secondary school students. Median tHg and MeHg concentrations of 280 samples purchased from different commercial outlets (covering 89 species of whole fish and three types of canned tuna), together with the local food consumption data of secondary school students obtained by semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire in 2000, were used to estimate dietary exposure from fish intake for the average and high consumer (95th percentile exposure). For tHg, the median concentration was 63 µg kg^–1 (range 3–1370 µg kg^–1) and estimated exposures ranged 0.5–0.6 µg kg^–1 body weight (bw) week^–1 for an average consumer and 1.6–1.9 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1 for a high consumer. For MeHg, median concentration was 48 µg kg^–1 (range 3–1010 µg kg^–1) and estimated dietary exposures were 0.4–0.5 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1 for an average consumer and 1.2–1.4 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1 for a high consumer. These values are below the respective provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) established by the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The health risk is greater for high consumers since MeHg exposures may approach or exceed the PTWI when other dietary sources are taken into account.     

Dietary exposure to chloropropanols of secondary school students in Hong Kong

This paper reports levels of 3-monochloropropan-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) in a wide range of food items and estimates their dietary exposure for secondary school students in Hong Kong. Dietary exposure to chloropropanols was estimated using local food consumption data obtained from secondary school students in 2000 and the concentrations of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP in food samples taken from the local market. The dietary exposure to 3-MCPD for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.063–0.150 µg kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.152–0.300 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. Both estimates fell below the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 µg kg^?1 bw established by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and amounted to less than 20% of this safety reference value. The dietary exposure to 1,3-DCP for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.003–0.019 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.009–0.040 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. The resulting margins of exposures were of low concern for human health. It could be concluded that both the average and high secondary school student consumers were unlikely to experience major toxicological effects of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP.     

Dietary intakes of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls in Spain.

Congener-specific analyses of seventeen 2,3,7,8-substituted PCDD/Fs, three non-ortho and 8 mono-ortho dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were performed on 258 Spanish foodstuff samples, mainly of animal origin, for 2000--03. Daily dietary intakes of PCDD/Fs and PCBs, expressed as toxic equivalents (WHO-TEQs), were estimated by combining food consumption data from the Spanish National Institute Statistics survey and concentration levels measured in individual samples, using upper bound determination values (not detectable = limit of detection). The calculated dietary intake of PCDD/Fs for a person weighing 70 kg was 1.35+/-0.11pg WHO-TEQs kg(-1) bw day(-1), and 3.22+/-0.75 pg WHO-TEQs kg(-1) bw day(-1) if dioxin-like PCBs (non- and mono-ortho PCBs) were included, showing the importance of their inclusion in monitoring studies. Both values were within the range of tolerable daily intake (TDI) proposed by the WHO (1-4pg WHO-TEQs kg(-1) bw day(-1)). The current levels are lower than earlier intakes estimates conducted in Spain. Meat and meat products accounted for more than 35% of the intake, followed by milk and milk products (29%), vegetables oils (19%), fish and seafood (11%) and eggs (4%). Dioxin-like PCBs are an important component in the total WHO-TEQs in foodstuffs. This is particularly true for the fish food group, where the total WHO-TEQs is dominated by dioxin-like PCBs (up to 80% of WHO-TEQs in some cases).     

Assessment of seasonality in exposure to dioxins,furans and dioxin-like PCBs by using long-term food-consumption data

According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) guidance related to uncertainties in dietary exposure assessment, exposure assessment based on short-term food-consumption surveys, such as 24-h recalls or 2-day records, tend to overestimate long-term exposure because of the assumption that the dietary pattern will be similar day after day over a lifetime. The aim of this study was to make an assessment of dietary exposure to polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), also called ‘dioxins’ and ‘dioxin-like PCBs’, using long-term household purchase and consumption survey data collected by TNS-Secodip. Weekly purchases of the major dioxins and dl-PCB vector products of these contaminants were collected for 328 single-person households, who participated at TNS-Secodip consumption surveys from 2003 to 2005 and who were single-person households in order to estimate better their consumption. These data were combined with average contamination levels of food products. Weekly gross average exposure was estimated at 10.2?pg toxic equivalent (WHO TEQ) kg^?1?bw?week^?1 (95% confidence interval [9.6, 10.9]). According to the typical shape of the distribution of individual weekly exposures, it is sensible to fit an exponential law to these data. The mean was therefore 12.1?pg WHO TEQ?kg^?1?bw?week^?1. This value is higher than the arithmetic mean because it better takes into account inter-individual variability. It was estimated that about 20% of persons in this sample were exceeding the current health-based guidance value mainly due to high consumption of seafood and/or dairy products. Thanks to long survey duration (3 years) and the weekly recording of food consumption, it was possible to demonstrate the actual seasonality of dietary exposure to dioxins and dl-PCBs with a maximum between March and September; similar seasonality is observable for fish consumption. Autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models were adjusted to the time series and it was demonstrated that the number of times the upper limit of confidence intervals exceeds the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) is about 15 weeks per year on average. Finally, compared with the results obtained from data collected in the short-term surveys (1 week), this study does not suggest that short-term consumption surveys tend to overestimate the long-term exposure.     

Elimination of dioxins in milk by dairy cows after the long-term intake of contaminated sugar beet pellets

ABSTRACT

Dried feed materials, such as sugar beet pellets, may be a source of high levels of PCDD/Fs. The studies followed up dioxin congener elimination from contaminated milk (5.02 ± 1.39 pg WHO PCDD/F-PCBs-TEQ g^?1 fat) up to 338 days after withdrawal of polluted feed ingredient (4.37 ± 0.25 ng PCDD/F/DL-PCBs-TEQ kg^?1 feed). The main objectives of the study were to estimate the length of the time needed to achieve an acceptable PCDD/F milk level as set by European Union law, to track the fate of the PCDD/F congeners, and to assess the potential risk for consumers associated with long-term consumption of contaminated milk. After approximately 200 days, the PCDD/F levels reached ML (2.5 pg WHO-TEQ g^?1 fat), then decreased to the action level after more than 300 days (1.75 pg WHO-TEQ g^?1 fat) for most of cows. The potential risk of PCDD/F/DL-PCBs intake was characterised by comparing the theoretically calculated weekly and monthly intakes with the toxicological reference values (TRVs). The dioxin intake for the average adult and high-milk consumers did not exceed half of any of the TRVs applied (TWI, PTMI). The consumption of milk by children in the amount recommended by nutritionists (500 ml day^–1) resulted in an exposure equal to 317% TWI and 275% PTMI.