Benzo[a]pyrene and total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) levels in vegetable oils and fats do not reflect the occurrence of the eight genotoxic PAHs

Concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in 115 samples of olive oil (extra virgin olive oil, virgin olive oil, olive oil, pomace olive oil and blended olive oil), cooking oil (corn oil, sunflower oil, sesame oil, palm olein oil, soya oil, canola oil, mustard oil, peanut oil and mixed vegetable oil) and fat (butter and table margarine) collected from retail stores in Kuwait. Carcinogenic benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) was detected in 43% of the samples analyzed. Benz[a]anthracene and chrysene were detected in 37 and 45% of the samples, respectively, that did not contain BaP. Of the individual non-carcinogenic PAHs, naphthalene showed the highest mean concentration (14 µg kg^?1), while for the carcinogenic PAHs, BaP (0.92 µg kg^?1) and chrysene (0.87 µg kg^?1) showed the highest mean values. Approximately 20% of the samples within the olive oil and cooking oil sub-categories exceeded the EU maximum tolerable limit for BaP, with the highest level of 6.77 and 11.1 µg kg^?1, respectively. For the fat sub-category, 9% of the samples exceeded the tolerance limit, with the highest level of 3.67 µg kg^?1. The Kuwaiti general population's dietary exposure to the genotoxic PAHs (PAH8: benz[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, dibenz[a,h]anthracene and benzo[ghi]perylene) was estimated to be 196 ng day^?1 (3.3 ng kg^?1 bw day^?1, assuming an average adult body weight of 60 kg). Results indicated that PAH8 and BaP_eq (total sum benzo[a]pyrene equivalents) are more reliable measures of the concentrations of other carcinogenic PAHs in oil and fat samples, while BaP and PAHs alone are not good indicators of the occurrence or degree of contamination by carcinogenic PAHs in these food products.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sugarcane juice

Sugarcane juice is a common beverage in many Brazilian cities. At harvesting season most sugarcane plantation is burnt and this procedure has been shown as an important source of PAHs emission. In the present study 80 samples of sugarcane juice collected from two Brazilian cities, in two different periods, were analysed for the presence of four PAHs: benz(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene and benzo(a)pyrene. PAHs were detected in 50% of the samples. The samples collected between harvests presented mean sums of PAHs of 0.013 μg/kg and 0.012 μg/kg, while the samples collected during harvest presented mean sums of 0.053 μg/kg and 0.055 μg/kg. A higher concentration and incidence of PAHs in the juices collected in the harvest period was verified, corroborating the burning of the crops as a source of sugarcane juice contamination.     

含螺旋藻产品中多环芳烃污染状况研究

目的 建立气相色谱-串联质谱法(gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, GC-MS/MS)测定含螺旋藻产品中多环芳烃残留量的方法, 并以此法探究市售含螺旋藻产品中以苯并(a)蒽、?、苯并(b)荧蒽和苯并(a)芘为代表的多环芳烃污染状况。方法 样品采用正己烷提取, 经QuEChERS净化, 选择DB-5 MS毛细管色谱柱, 在多反应监测(multiple reaction monitoring, MRM)模式下采用基质匹配外标法定量。采用4种多环芳烃化合物(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAH)总量(PAH4)和苯并(a)芘进行双指标分析, 并结合摄入量对市售含螺旋藻产品中多环芳烃污染情况进行分析。结果 4种化合物在1~32 μg/L的范围内具有良好的线性关系, 相关系数r2>0.995, 方法定量限4 μg/kg, 平均回收率为64.1%~102%, 相对标准偏差(relative standard deviations, RSD)为2.2%~6.4% (n=6)。75个受试样本的多环芳烃检出率为76%, 检出的4种多环芳烃含量范围为4.1~916.0 μg/kg。在苯并(a)芘含量大于50 μg/kg时, 苯并(a)芘含量与PAH4含量之间呈现明显的正相关, 但在低于50 μg/kg时, 两者未显示出相关性。结论 建立的方法准确度高, 灵敏度好, 适用于含螺旋藻产品中多环芳烃的检测。实际样品的测定结果显示, 市售含螺旋藻产品中存在高水平多环芳烃污染的情况, 可能对服用者产生安全风险。样本中苯并(a)芘与PAH4总量之间存在一定相关性, 在高污染水平两者相关性趋明显, 在低污染水平苯并(a)芘不宜作为螺旋藻中多环芳烃污染的唯一指标。建议食品安全相关部门应加强风险防控, 制定合理的控制规范、设立恰当的指标限量。     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked cheese

BACKGROUND: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) represent a group of organic compounds containing two or more aromatic rings. Their control in the human food chain is required due to the mutagenic and carcinogenic potential, exhibited in vertebrates. In the present study, the occurrence of PAHs in 36 cheeses smoked by various processes was investigated. RESULTS: PAH concentrations (sum of 15 US EPA PAHs) found in samples smoked under controlled industrial conditions were at level 0.11 µg kg^?1, whereas in ‘home‐made’ cheeses, the PAH content was up to 10 times higher. A similar trend was observed for B[a]P, a marker compound representing carcinogenic PAHs. While its levels in commercial products prepared by controlled smoking technologies were close to the limit of quantification (0.03 µg kg^?1); in household samples, the B[a]P content ranged from 0.6 to 0.9 µg kg^?1. Significantly higher amounts of PAHs (up to three to six times) were found in surface layers as compared to internal parts of cheese. CONCLUSION: Although smoked cheese is a popular food, only several papers have focused on PAH levels in these products. This paper evaluates the contribution of different smoking technologies to PAH contamination of several cheeses and thus can help in a risk assessment associated with their consumption. Moreover, the study shows the concentration ratios of selected PAHs, from which the type of smoking technology can be indicated. The results obtained in this study also supported the suggestion of the EU Scientific Committee on Food to use benzo[a]pyrene as an indicator of the occurrence of higher‐molecular mass PAHs. Copyright © 2008 Society of Chemical Industry     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contamination of traditionally grilled pork marketed in South Benin and health risk assessment for the Beninese consumer

ABSTRACT

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contamination was monitored in grilled pork sold in Beninese street restaurants, as well as in grilled pork from a well-controlled experiment replicating traditional grilling using Acacia auriculiformis wood as fuel. Fifteen PAHs were analysed using a high-performance liquid chromatography method coupled with fluorescence detection. To assess the risk for the consumer, the margins of exposure (MOEs) were calculated, as the ratio between benchmark PAHs levels and consumer intakes. A MOE below 10,000 indicates a concern for human health for carcinogenic compounds such as PAHs. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) levels up to 17.9 and 53.6 µg/kg were found in grilled pork sampled in restaurants and from the controlled experiment, respectively. When considering both median estimated daily intake and median PAHs contamination levels, MOEs calculated for Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) alone, or for the sum of 2, 4 or 8 PAHs were above 10,000, meaning no risk in these cases. However, for the same PAHs contamination level, MOE for consumers having large amounts of grilled pork (97.5th percentile and maximum level of pork consumption) were well below 10,000. When considering the maximum level of PAHs contamination, MOEs ranged between 257 and 2,757 for the high and median levels of consumption, indicating a safety concern for these consumers. This study reveals that Beninese grilled pork consumers from South Benin can be exposed to high levels of PAHs, which might result in public health issues.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in animal-based foods from Shanghai: bioaccessibility and dietary exposure

A total of 175 samples of 18 types of food were collected from markets in Shanghai, China, and the concentrations and bioaccessibility of 15 priority-controlled polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in these samples were determined. The mean concentrations of PAHs varied between 2.4 and 47.1?ng?g^?1 wet weight, with the highest being observed in snail and lowest in chicken. The concentrations were lower than the maximum levels of PAH allowed for food per EU regulations. Among the PAHs measured, phenanthrene was the predominant one. Most of the PAHs originated from pyrogenic sources, analysed using molecular indices. The mean bioaccessibility of PAHs varied from 29.0% to 61.2% as measured by simulating the human gastrointestinal digestion process. Linear relationships between the bioaccessibility and lipid contents were observed for most PAH congeners. The daily intake of PAHs by an average Shanghai resident was 848?ng?day^?1 and decreased to 297?ng?day^?1 when the bioaccessibility of PAHs were considered, demonstrating that most intake might have been overestimated. According to the potency equivalent concentrations and screening values of PAHs, consumption of snail and clam, especially snail, should be limited.     

Dietary exposure and risk assessment of European Union priority (EU 15+1) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from milks and milk powders in China

Dairy products, characterized by rich nutrition and unique flavor, occupy an increasing share of the human diet with the development of higher living standards. However, trace hazardous contaminants in dairy products, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), are arousing public concern. In this study, we investigated 82 milks and milk powders from Shanghai markets for the occurrence of 20 PAH, including 16 European Union priority (EU 15+1) PAH and 4 derivatives. Furthermore, we carried out a risk assessment of dietary exposure of PAHs from dairy products based on detection results and data on body weight and dietary intake obtained from questionnaires. Two assessment methods were used in this study: the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) and margin of exposure (MOE) methods. The ILCR of all age groups was 10^?6 to 10^?4, indicating a potential but acceptable carcinogenic risk. The MOE of the 4 groups (divided by age and sex) was >10⁴, indicating no significant carcinogenic risk of PAH exposure from dairy products. In both methods, children had the highest risk because of their greater consumption of dairy products, followed by seniors, young adults, and middle-aged adults. Results of this study provide reference data on the exposure level and health risk of PAHs from dairy product intake.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in meat products and estimated PAH intake by children and the general population in Estonia

The concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene and 11 other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analysed from 322 commercial, cured meat products and 14 home-grilled meat samples as part of the Estonian food safety monitoring programme during 2001-2005. The maximum acceptable concentration of 5 µg kg^-1 for benzo[a]pyrene was exceeded in 3.4% of samples. The highest PAH concentrations were detected in home-grilled pork samples. Using of disposable grilling unit resulted in 1.6 times higher PAH concentrations compared to the traditional wood-burning grill. The average intake of benzo[a]pyrene and sum of 12 PAHs from meat products was estimated for children (age 1-16 years) on the basis of an individual food consumption questionnaire and, for the general population, based on national food consumption data. The highest total PAH concentrations detected were 16 µg kg^-1 in smoked meat and ham, 19 µg kg^-1 in smoked sausage and 6.5 µg kg^-1 in smoked chicken samples. Since smoking and grilling are prevalent meat-cooking methods in Estonia, the impact of meat products is assessed to be significant in overall PAH intake.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in cereal products on the Turkish market

The contamination level of four EU marker polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in some cereal-derived products was surveyed in this study. Thirty-eight samples, 20 bread and 18 breakfast cereals, were purchased from retail shops and local markets of East Black sea region in Turkey. The samples were analysed for four EU marker PAHs, using ultrasonic extraction, solid-phase extraction (SPE) clean up and stable-isotope dilution gas chromatography with mass-spectrometric (GC/MS) detection. The method was validated with the parameters linearity, accuracy, precision, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantitation (LOQ) and uncertainty. Total content of the four PAHs in bread varied from 0.19 to 0.46 µg kg^?1 and in breakfast cereals from 0.10 to 0.87 µg kg^?1.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in milk and dairy products

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of organic compounds with a structure consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms that have more than two fused aromatic rings. Most PAHs have carcinogenic effects on animal or humans and induce various cancers. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are a consequence of environmental pollutants, imperfect burning or pyrolysis of organic substances during industrial processing. Additionally, foods can be contaminated during their processing and preparation through different heat treatments. This review highlights the formation, occurrence and health impacts of PAHs in milk and milk products, and analytical technique used for their determination in dairy products.     

食品中多环芳烃及卤代多环芳烃的研究进展

综述了多环芳烃及卤代多环芳烃的性质、毒性及国内外食品中的污染情况和研究现状,并对目前的分析测定方法进行了介绍,希望为我国开展食品领域内多环芳烃和卤代多环芳烃的研究提供参考。     

多环芳烃脱除方法及其在维生素E油中的应用

介绍了多环芳烃（PAHs）的性质、来源和危害，详述了油、污水、土壤中多环芳烃的脱除方法：物理法（包括萃取法、吸附法、层析法及人造纤维富集法等）、化学反应法、生物反应法、化学-生物降解法等，比较了各种脱除方法的优缺点。分析了维生素E油中的PAHs的来源。实验结果显示，硅胶柱层析法、微波萃取法、人造纤维bluerayon吸附等方法对维生素E油中PAHs的脱除有较好的效果。     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and lead in roadside lettuce and rye grain

Thirty-eight samples of lettuce and three samples of rye from an experimental site close to a highway were analysed for 20 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and lead. The lettuce plants were grown 8–65 m from the road and collected after 5,9 and 11 weeks of exposure. The levels of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and lead varied from 0.1 to 1.3 μg kg^?1 and from 0.18 to 1.6 mg kg^?1, respectively. The plants grown close to the road and with long exposure times showed the highest levels. The positive gradients for PAH and lead with exposure time and closeness to the road were nearly identical, but in different concentration ranges. Lettuce plants grown in a cold frame showed lower levels than those grown in the open. In rye sampled at 7–25 m from the road, BaP was not detected and lead levels ranged from 0.07 to 0.11 mg kg^?1. The results suggest that the Swedish National Food Administration/National Environmental Protection Board recommendations, i.e. not to grow leafy vegetables closer than 25 m from roads with intense traffic, are sufficient at traffic flows of up to 12 000 vehicles per day.     

Reducing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in olive pomace oil using short-path molecular distillation

ABSTRACT

Bleached olive pomace oil (BOPO) was distilled using a short-path molecular distillation unit to determine the impacts of distillation conditions on the removal of 15 PAHs from the list of 16 EPA-priority pollutant PAHs. The removal of PAHs was achieved at elevated temperatures (110–230°C) and pressures (0.05, 0.5, 5 mbar). The oil was also deodorised at 230°C under 0.5, 1 and 5 mbar pressures to determine the effect of pressure during deodorisation on the removal of PAHs. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD) was used for quantifying PAH concentrations in oil samples. PAH concentrations in BOPO were considerably reduced after molecular distillation and both temperature increment and pressure decrease were effective for the removal of PAHs from olive pomace oil. When above 190°C, BaP could be reduced to <2 µg/kg at all pressures. Distillation at 230°C under 0.05 mbar absolute pressure reduced the sum of four PAHs (BaP, Chr, BaA, BbF) to 7 µg/kg, which meets the acceptable levels established by the European Union (10 µg/kg). Deodorisation effectiveness was increased by decreasing absolute pressure, particularly for light PAHs.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in diet: Concern for public health

BackgroundExposure to carcinogenic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is responsible for numerous human health problems. Diet has been found responsible for nearly 88–98% exposure to PAHs in humans. Different studies have been conducted worldwide to investigate the role of food processing techniques and food matrix in PAHs' formation and adsorption, which has helped in establishing regulations and guidelines.Scope and approachThe present review focuses on the published research articles on concentrations and profile of PAHs in Indian food products. The levels in Indian diet were compared with those reported for similar food products and categories in international studies, and the associated gaps and future prospects were discussed. This paper holds importance for public health especially for societies having an Indian-influenced diet.Key findings and conclusionsIndian food products belonging to Beverages, Oils, Fruits, Vegetables, Supplements, Chocolates, Traditional items and Marine foods category accumulated PAHs during pre- and post-harvest stages and acted as the main sources of PAHs' exposure to humans. Compared to worldwide studies, studies focusing on PAHs in Indian food products are very few, basic in nature and limited in scope.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoke from different woods and their transfer during traditional smoking into chorizo sausages with collagen and tripe casings

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), at least those with high molecular mass, are classified as probable human carcinogens by the US Environmental Protection Agency. The importance of the material used to generate smoke is indicated by the attention that the European Union is paying to list the wood that can be used to produce smoking flavour agents. The paper examines the dependence on the nature of the wood used for smoking on the formation of eight PAHs (selected as markers of PAHs) and transfer of these PAHs into traditional Spanish smoked chorizo sausages with collagen and tripe casings. The results showed that the kind of combustion performed on different materials seriously affected the PAH levels in the smoke generated. Ignition and firing of the material with a flame compared with heating produced more PAHs in the smoke. The levels of PAHs found in the meat and in the collagen and tripe casings of the smoked chorizo samples suggest that the collagen-based casings behave as a better barrier to PAHs.     

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Smoked Ham

The aim of this work was to determine the content of four polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in household-produced smoked meat. Ham was manufactured in traditional drying facilities and smoking cabinets in Serbia. PAHs can significantly influence smoked meat quality and safety. The total content of the PAHs was 11.51 μg/kg in ham manufactured in drying cabinets and 0.16 μg/kg in ham produced in smoking facilities. The most abundant of all PAHs was chrysene. Benzo[a]pyrene was detected in hams manufactured in traditional dryers in southwestern Serbia in concentrations lower than maximum residue level set in current Regulation in Republic of Serbia.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis) from the Argentinean market

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) occurrence in 50 samples marketed in the main supermarkets from Argentina was surveyed. A high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was applied with fluorescence detection (FLD) and UV—VIS diodes array detector (DAD) for the analysis of 16 PAHs in “yerba mate” (Ilex paraguariensis), with recoveries higher than 89% and limits of detection and quantification lower than that found by other methodologies in previous studies. Contamination expressed as the sum of 16 analysed PAHs ranged between 224.6 and 4449.5 μg kg^?1 on dry mass. The contamination expressed as PAH4 (sum of benzo(a)pyrene, chrysene, benzo(a)anthracene and benzo(b)fluoranthene) varied between 8.3 and 512.4 μg kg^?1. The correlation coefficient for PAH2 (sum of benzo(a)pyrene and chrysene) and PAH4 groups was 0.99, for PAH2 and PAH8 (sum of benzo(a)pyrene, chrysene, benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene and indeno(1,2,3cd) pyrene) 0.97 and for PAH4 and PAH8 0.98.     

Carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) determined in Nigerian kundi (smoke-dried meat)

Chemical analyses of kundi show that, apart from a high level of carcinogenic benzo (a)pyrene (10·5–66·9 ng g^?1), eight other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are present at various concentrations. The high levels of PAH in kundi are due to the high glow and smoking temperatures averaging 926°C and 191·5°C, respectively. Column chromatography was used for PAH extraction with propylene carbonate as the eluting chemical; thin layer chromatography (TLC) on acetylated cellulose layer plates was used for separation, and the determination was performed using spectrophotofluorimetry. The public health implications of PAH as one of the possible carcinogenic factors in the high incidence of primary liver and stomach cancer reported in Nigeria are highlighted.     

食品中多环芳烃的研究进展

简述了近年来关于食品中多环芳烃的形成机理、分析方法及控制措施的研究进展,以期为解决食品中多环芳烃的污染问题提供依据。