Occurrence of beauvericin and enniatins in wheat flour and corn grits on the Japanese market,and their co-contamination with type B trichothecene mycotoxins

The contamination levels of beauvericin and four enniatins, A, A₁, B and B₁, in 207 samples of wheat flour and corn grits on the Japanese market were determined by an analytical method based on LC-MS/MS. The toxins were extracted from samples with acetonitrile–water (85:15, v/v) and then purified with C18 cartridges. The method was validated in a single laboratory using spiked samples at two levels; the recovery of the five toxins ranged from 91.1% to 113.8%. Enniatin B was frequently detected in imported wheat flour (81.8%) and domestic wheat flour (85.6%), and the highest concentration of enniatin B was present in a domestic wheat sample (633 μg kg^?1). In corn grits, beauvericin was found in 34% of the samples, but enniatins were not detected at all. The maximum concentration of beauvericin in corn grits was 26.1 μg kg^?1. Deoxynivalenol and nivalenol in the same samples were determined by a method using an immunoaffinity column. Co-contamination of deoxynivalenol and enniatins was observed in 61% of the imported wheat samples and in 58% of the domestic wheat samples. These results suggest the need for a risk assessment for cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxins in Japan and a study on the synergistic effect of deoxynivalenol and enniatins.     

Occurrence of Fusarium Head Blight species and Fusarium mycotoxins in winter wheat in the Netherlands in 2009

Most recent information on the occurrence of Fusarium Head Blight species and related mycotoxins in wheat grown in the Netherlands dates from 2001. This aim of this study was to investigate the incidence and levels of Fusarium Head Blight species and Fusarium mycotoxins, as well as their possible relationships, in winter wheat cultivated in the Netherlands in 2009. Samples were collected from individual fields of 88 commercial wheat growers. Samples were collected at harvest from 86 fields, and 2 weeks before the expected harvest date from 21 fields. In all, 128 samples, the levels of each of seven Fusarium Head Blight species and of 12 related mycotoxins were quantified. The results showed that F. graminearum was the most frequently observed species at harvest, followed by F. avenaceum and M. nivale. In the pre-harvest samples, only F. graminearum and M. nivale were relevant. The highest incidence and concentrations of mycotoxins were found for deoxynivalenol, followed by zearalenone and beauvericin, both pre-harvest and at harvest. Other toxins frequently found – for the first time in the Netherlands – included T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, and moniliformin. The levels of deoxynivalenol were positively related to F. graminearum levels, as well as to zearalenone levels. Other relationships could not be established. The current approach taken in collecting wheat samples and quantifying the presence of Fusarium Head Blight species and related mycotoxins is an efficient method to obtain insight into the occurrence of these species and toxins in wheat grown under natural environmental conditions. It is recommended that this survey be repeated for several years to establish inter-annual variability in both species composition and mycotoxin occurrence.     

Silage review: Mycotoxins in silage: Occurrence,effects, prevention,and mitigation

Ensiled forage, particularly corn silage, is an important component of dairy cow diets worldwide. Forages can be contaminated with several mycotoxins in the field pre-harvest, during storage, or after ensiling during feed-out. Exposure to dietary mycotoxins adversely affects the performance and health of livestock and can compromise human health. Several studies and surveys indicate that ruminants are often exposed to mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, zearalenone, and many other fungal secondary metabolites, via the silage they ingest. Problems associated with mycotoxins in silage can be minimized by preventing fungal growth before and after ensiling. Proper silage management is essential to reduce mycotoxin contamination of dairy cow feeds, and certain mold-inhibiting chemical additives or microbial inoculants can also reduce the contamination levels. Several sequestering agents also can be added to diets to reduce mycotoxin levels, but their efficacy varies with the type and level of mycotoxin contamination. This article gives an overview of the types, prevalence, and levels of mycotoxin contamination in ensiled forages in different countries, and describes their adverse effects on health of ruminants, and effective prevention and mitigation strategies for dairy cow diets. Future research priorities discussed include research efforts to develop silage additives or rumen microbial innocula that degrade mycotoxins.     

Occurrence of Fusarium Head Blight species and Fusarium mycotoxins in winter wheat in the Netherlands in 2009

Most recent information on the occurrence of Fusarium Head Blight species and related mycotoxins in wheat grown in the Netherlands dates from 2001. This aim of this study was to investigate the incidence and levels of Fusarium Head Blight species and Fusarium mycotoxins, as well as their possible relationships, in winter wheat cultivated in the Netherlands in 2009. Samples were collected from individual fields of 88 commercial wheat growers. Samples were collected at harvest from 86 fields, and 2 weeks before the expected harvest date from 21 fields. In all, 128 samples, the levels of each of seven Fusarium Head Blight species and of 12 related mycotoxins were quantified. The results showed that F. graminearum was the most frequently observed species at harvest, followed by F. avenaceum and M. nivale. In the pre-harvest samples, only F. graminearum and M. nivale were relevant. The highest incidence and concentrations of mycotoxins were found for deoxynivalenol, followed by zearalenone and beauvericin, both pre-harvest and at harvest. Other toxins frequently found - for the first time in the Netherlands - included T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, and moniliformin. The levels of deoxynivalenol were positively related to F. graminearum levels, as well as to zearalenone levels. Other relationships could not be established. The current approach taken in collecting wheat samples and quantifying the presence of Fusarium Head Blight species and related mycotoxins is an efficient method to obtain insight into the occurrence of these species and toxins in wheat grown under natural environmental conditions. It is recommended that this survey be repeated for several years to establish inter-annual variability in both species composition and mycotoxin occurrence.     

Determination of Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins (A,A1, B,B1) in eggs of laying hens using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS)

An existing sample preparation technique used for the determination of ionophoric coccidiostats was modified to permit the analysis of Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins in egg samples. The validation results indicated that the sample preparation method developed is well applicable to the determination of the related compounds in eggs. The presence and contamination levels of beauvericin and enniatins A, A1, B and B1 were studied in Finnish egg samples in 2004–2005. The egg sample analyses (112 whole eggs and 367 egg yolk) revealed that the occurrence of beauvericin as well as enniatins B and B1 is very common in Finnish eggs. The contaminations were, however, in most cases in trace-levels (<limit of quantification). Enniatin A and A1 were not found in any of the whole egg samples, and furthermore enniatin B1 was present only in samples from 2004. The general contamination levels of beauvericin and enniatins in whole egg samples were similar in 2004 and 2005. The prevalence and concentration levels of mycotoxins were higher in the market samples (egg yolk) as compared to samples collected in the national residue monitoring programme (whole egg) samples suggesting that there may be bioaccumulation of these mycotoxin contaminants in egg yolk. This is the first study to report the presence of Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins in egg samples.     

Evaluation of enniatins A,A1, B,B1 and beauvericin in Portuguese cereal-based foods

Sixty-one samples of Portuguese cereal-based foods were analysed for the occurrence of emerging mycotoxins called enniatins (A, A1, B and B1) and beauvericin. Samples were extracted with a mixture of acetonitrile/water (85/15, v/v) using an Ultra-Turrax homogeniser, and mycotoxins were detected with liquid chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer. This method was validated and adequate values of recovery (70–103%) and relative standard deviation (<15%) were obtained. Signal suppression/enhancement was studied and matrix-matched calibration used to minimise this effect, but no additional clean-up step was necessary. The mass spectrometer was operated in selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode and with selected transitions for each compound to quantify and to qualify them. Fifty-nine per cent of samples were contaminated. The percentages of enniatins were 53%, 49%, 44% and 16% for A1, B, B1, and A, respectively, and for beauvericin it was 1.6%. For the total samples, the mean contamination was 30, 24, 15, 2.1 and 0.1?ng?g^?1 for enniatins A1, B, B1 and A, and beauvericin, respectively. The wheat-based samples showed higher levels and greater prevalence than any other cereals monitored. These results were used to estimate the daily intake of ENs from wheat-based cereal by the Portuguese population. At the same time, the usefulness of this method in the analysis of other important mycotoxins (aflatoxin B₁, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, fumonisin B₁ and zearalenone) was evaluated.     

Occurrence of mycotoxins in maize,grass and wheat silage for dairy cattle in the Netherlands

The occurrence of mycotoxins in 140 maize silages, 120 grass silages and 30 wheat silages produced in the Netherlands between 2002 and 2004 was determined using a liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry detection (LC-MS/MS) multi-method. Deoxynivalenol (DON) was detected above the limit of quantification (LOQ) of 250 μg kg^?1 in 72% of maize and 10% of wheat silages. Average DON concentrations were 854 and 621 μg kg^?1, respectively, and maximum concentrations 3142 and 1165 μg kg^?1, respectively. Zearalenone was detected above the LOQ of 25 μg kg^?1 in 49% of maize and 6% of grass silages. Average zearalenone concentrations were 174 and 93 μg kg^?1, respectively, and maximum concentrations 943 and 308 μg kg^?1, respectively. The incidences and average concentrations of DON and zearalenone in maize silage were highest in 2004. The incidence of other mycotoxins was low: fumonisin B1 and 15-acetyl-DON were detected in 1.4 and 5% of maize silages, respectively, and roquefortin C in 0.8% of grass silages. None of the silages contained aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, T2-toxin, HT2-toxin, sterigmatocystin, diacetoxyscirpenol, fusarenon-X, ergotamine, penicillinic acid, or mycophenolic acid. This study demonstrates that maize silage is an important source of DON and zearalenone in the diet of dairy cattle. Since the carryover of these mycotoxins into milk is negligible, their occurrence in feed is not considered to be of significant concern with respect to the safety of dairy products for consumers. Potential implications for animal health are discussed.     

Inclusion of wheat and triticale silage in the diet of lactating dairy cows

The objective of this experiment was to partially replace corn silage with 2 alternative forages, wheat (Triticum aestivum) or triticale (X Triticosecale) silages at 10% of the diet dry matter (DM), and investigate the effects on dairy cow productivity, nutrient utilization, enteric CH₄ emissions, and farm income over feed costs. Wheat and triticale were planted in the fall as cover crops and harvested in the spring at the boot stage. Neutral- and acid-detergent fiber and lignin concentrations were higher in the wheat and triticale silages compared with corn silage. The forages had similar ruminal in situ effective degradability of DM. Both alternative forages had 1% starch or less compared with the approximately 35% starch in corn silage. Diets with the alternative forages were fed in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design experiment with three 28-d periods and 12 Holstein cows. The control diet contained 44% (DM basis) corn silage. In the other 2 diets, wheat or triticale silages were included at 10% of dietary DM, replacing corn silage. Dry matter intake was not affected by diet, but both wheat and triticale silage decreased yield of milk (41.4 and 41.2 vs. 42.7 ± 5.18 kg/d) and milk components, compared with corn silage. Milk fat from cows fed the alternative forage diets contained higher concentrations of 4:0, 6:0, and 18:0 and tended to have lower concentrations of total trans fatty acids. Apparent total-tract digestibility of DM and organic matter was decreased in the wheat silage diet, and digestibility of neutral-and acid-detergent fiber was increased in the triticale silage diet. The wheat and triticale silage diets resulted in higher excretion of urinary urea, higher milk urea N, and lower milk N efficiency compared with the corn silage diet. Enteric CH₄ emission per kilogram of energy-corrected milk was highest in the triticale silage diet, whereas CO₂ emission was decreased by both wheat and triticale silage. This study showed that, at milk production of around 42 kg/d, wheat silage and triticale silage can partially replace corn silage DM and not affect DM intake, but milk yield may decrease slightly. For dairy farms in need of more forage, triticale or wheat double cropped with corn silage may be an appropriate cropping strategy.     

Validation and application of a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry based method for the assessment of the co-occurrence of mycotoxins in maize silages from dairy farms in NW Spain

The first objective of this study was the validation of an efficient multi-analyte method for the simultaneous detection and quantification of mycotoxins in maize silage, by reverse-phase liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionisation triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-HESI-MS/MS). A simple liquid/solid extraction was performed either with clean-up on Mycospin 400 columns or without any clean-up. Almost all the target mycotoxins showed highly-suppressed signals in the presence of a matrix, emphasising the need to quantitate mycotoxins by means of matrix-matched calibrations. An alternative validation method based on ISO 11843 and on a single factor balanced design was implemented. The achieved average recoveries from spiked samples at three levels ranged from 60% to 122% with relative standard deviations (rsd) below 11%. Limits of Detection (LODs) and Limits of Quantification (LOQs) were between 0.02–17.1 µg kg^?1 and 0.06–57 µg kg^?1. The calculated repeatability and within-lab reproducibility ranged from 5.2 to 23.2% and from 7.2 to 23.9%, respectively. Finally, the decision limit and detection capacity, CCα and CCβ, were calculated for all mycotoxins having regulated/recommended contents in feed. The validated method was applied to 148 samples collected over two years in 19 dairy farms from Galicia (NW Spain). Of the analysed samples, 62% contained at least one mycotoxin. Zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins B1 and B2, roquefortine C, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, enniatins B and B1, andrastin A, marcfortine A, verruculogen and mycophenolic acid were quantified, the highest average detection frequency being for enniatin B (51%). DON, mycophenolic acid and ZEA plus metabolites (α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol) were the most abundant mycotoxins.     

Mycotoxins co-contamination: Methodological aspects and biological relevance of combined toxicity studies

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites produced mainly by Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium. As evidenced by large-scale surveys, humans and animals are simultaneously exposed to several mycotoxins. Simultaneous exposure could result in synergistic, additive or antagonistic effects. However, most toxicity studies addressed the effects of mycotoxins separately.

We present the experimental designs and we discuss the conclusions drawn from in vitro experiments exploring toxicological interactions of mycotoxins.

We report more than 80 publications related to mycotoxin interactions. The studies explored combinations involving the regulated groups of mycotoxins, especially aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone and trichothecenes, but also the “emerging” mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins. Over 50 publications are based on the arithmetic model of additivity. Few studies used the factorial designs or the theoretical biology-based models of additivity. The latter approaches are gaining increased attention. These analyses allow determination of the type of interaction and, optionally, its magnitude. The type of interaction reported for mycotoxin combinations depended on several factors, in particular cell models and the tested dose ranges. However, synergy among Fusarium toxins was highlighted in several studies. This review indicates that well-addressed in vitro studies remain valuable tools for the screening of interactive potential in mycotoxin mixtures.     

The Fate of Mycotoxins During the Processing of Wheat for Human Consumption

Mycotoxins are a potential health threat in cereals including wheat. In the European Union (EU), mycotoxin maximum levels are laid down for cereal raw materials and final food products. For wheat and wheat‐based products, the EU maximum levels apply to deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone, aflatoxins, and ochratoxin A. This review provides a comprehensive overview on the different mycotoxins and their legal limits and on how processing of wheat can affect such contaminants, from raw material to highly processed final products, based on relevant scientific studies published in the literature. The potential compliance with EU maximum levels is discussed. Of the four mycotoxins regulated in wheat‐based foods in the EU, most data are available for DON, whereas aflatoxins were rarely studied in the processing of wheat. Furthermore, available data on the effect of processing are outlined for mycotoxins not regulated by EU law—including modified and emerging mycotoxins—and which cover DON derivatives (DON‐3‐glucoside, mono‐acetyl‐DONs, norDONs, deepoxy‐DON), nivalenol, T‐2 and HT‐2 toxins, enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, and fumonisins. The processing steps addressed in this review cover primary processing (premilling and milling operations) and secondary processing procedures (such as fermentation and thermal treatments). A special focus is on the production of baked goods, and processing factors for DON in wheat bread production were estimated. For wheat milling products derived from the endosperm and for white bread, compliance with legal requirements seems to be mostly achievable when applying good practices. In the case of wholemeal products, bran‐enriched products, or high‐cereal low‐moisture bakery products, this appears to be challenging and improved technology and/or selection of high‐quality raw materials would be required.     

Mycotoxin contamination of cereal grain commodities in relation to climate in North West Europe

This study aimed to investigate mycotoxin contamination of cereal grain commodities for feed and food production in North Western Europe during the last two decades, including trends over time and co-occurrence between toxins, and to assess possible effects of climate on the presence of mycotoxins. For these aims, analytical results related to mycotoxin contamination of cereal grain commodities, collected in the course of national monitoring programmes in Finland, Sweden, Norway and the Netherlands during a 20-year period, were gathered. Historical observational weather data, including daily relative humidity, rainfall and temperature, were obtained from each of these four countries. In total 6382 records, referring to individual sample results for mycotoxin concentrations (one or more toxins) in cereal grains were available. Most records referred to wheat, barley, maize and oats. The most frequently analysed mycotoxins were deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin and zearalenone. Deoxynivalenol had the highest overall incidence of 46%, and was mainly found in wheat, maize and oats. Mycotoxins that showed co-occurrence were: deoxynivalenol and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol in oats; deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in maize and wheat; and T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin in oats. The presence of both deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in wheat increased with higher temperatures, relative humidity and rainfall during cultivation, but the presence of nivalenol was negatively associated with most of these climatic factors. The same holds for both nivalenol and deoxynivalenol in oats. This implies that climatic conditions that are conducive for one toxin may have a decreasing effect on the other. The presence of HT-2 toxin in oats showed a slight decreasing trends over time, but significant trends for other toxins showed an increasing presence during the last two decades. It is therefore useful to continue monitoring of mycotoxins. Obtained results can be used for development of predictive models for presence of mycotoxins in cereal grains.     

Occurrence of emerging mycotoxins in cereals and cereal-based products from the Korean market using LC-MS/MS

The present study aimed to investigate the occurrence of emerging mycotoxins in cereals (n = 61) and cereal-based products (n = 36) collected from Korean market. First of all, using the quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) extraction method, and ultrahigh-pressure liquid chromatography (UPLC) with triple quadruple tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), we developed a simple and fast method for quantitative determination of eight emerging mycotoxins including alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tentoxin (TEN), beauvericin (BEA) and enniatins (ENs; ENA, ENA1, ENB and ENB1). The developed analytical method was validated in parameters of linearity, precision and accuracy. For UPLC-MS/MS analysis, the recoveries of emerging mycotoxins from spiked samples at three concentration levels ranged from 82.7% to 108.8% with RSDs between 0.4% and 14.7%. Analytical methods were applied to determine the contamination of mycotoxins in cereal and cereal-based product samples. Sixty-three of the total 97 samples were contaminated with at least one emerging mycotoxin. The maximum number of emerging mycotoxins observed in a single sample was six out of eight analytes. The highest level of contamination was detected in cereal at 70.9 μg/kg for alternariol monomethyl ether (AME). However, currently there is no international standard for emerging mycotoxins in food. Accordingly, it is necessary to establish a database of emerging mycotoxins contamination through continuous monitoring.     

Occurrence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs of dairy cows and estimation of total dietary intakes

A survey was conducted to determine the occurrence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs of dairy cows in the Netherlands and to estimate total dietary intakes of these compounds. Twenty-four dairy farms were visited twice and samples taken of all diet ingredients. Feed intake data were collected by means of questionnaires. A total of 169 feed samples were collected and analyzed for 20 mycotoxins using a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry multimethod. Silage and compound feed were the main diet ingredients, representing on average 67 and 23% of dry matter intake, respectively. Deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone, roquefortine C, and mycophenolic acid were the mycotoxins with the highest incidence. The incidence of DON in silage, compound feed, and feed commodity samples was 38 to 54%. The incidence of zearalenone in silage, compound feed, and feed commodity samples was 17 to 38%. The DON and zearalenone had a low incidence in forage samples and were not detected in ensiled by-product samples. Roquefortine C and mycophenolic acid were only detected in silage and ensiled by-product samples (incidence 7 to 19%). Fumonisins B₁ and B₂ were detected in 2 compound feed samples and one feed commodity sample. Aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂, ochratoxin A, T-2 and HT-2 toxin, 3-acetyl-DON, 15-acetyl-DON, diacetoxyscirpenol, sterigmatocystin, fusarenon-X, ergotamine, and penicillinic acid were not detected in any of the samples. Average concentrations of DON, zearalenone, roquefortine C, and mycophenolic acid in complete diets were 273, 28, 114, and 54 μg/kg, respectively. Maximum concentrations were 969, 203, 2,211, and 1,840 μg/kg, respectively. Calculated average daily intakes of these mycotoxins were 5.0, 0.5, 2.0, and 0.9 mg/animal, respectively, and maximum daily intakes 19.3, 3.5, 38.9, and 32.3 mg/animal, respectively. Corn silage was the major source of all 4 of these mycotoxins in the diet. Extremely high concentrations of roquefortine C and mycophenolic acid (up to 45 and 25 mg/kg, respectively) were detected in visibly molded areas in surface layers of corn silage. These areas appeared to be the main source of roquefortine C and mycophenolic acid in the diet. Because carry-over of DON, zearale-none, roquefortine C, and mycophenolic acid into milk is negligible, their occurrence in feedstuffs is not considered of significant concern with respect to the safety of dairy products for consumers. Potential implications for animal health are discussed.     

镰刀菌属真菌毒素的毒性研究进展

镰刀属真菌毒素是非常重要的一类真菌毒素,其种类繁多,污染率高,性质差异大,毒性也较强。本综述总结了较为常见的28种镰刀属真菌毒素(T-2毒素、HT-2毒素、蛇形毒素、新茄病镰刀菌烯醇、雪腐镰刀菌烯醇、脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇、镰刀菌烯酮、玉米赤霉烯酮、伏马毒素B_1、B_2、B_3、串珠镰刀菌素、白僵菌素以及恩镰孢菌素等)近40年来体内、体外毒性研究资料,主要涵盖急性毒性、慢性毒性的致癌性、生长生殖毒性、致突变和基因毒性、免疫毒性、神经毒性、细胞毒性及血液毒性。同时对伏马毒素B_1、脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇及其他几种常见毒素间的协同毒性作用进行概述。体内毒性实验研究中主要采用口服和腹腔注射的给药方式;而最常用的实验动物为鸡、小鼠、大鼠和猪。体外毒性实验研究用细胞为:鼠伤寒沙门氏菌菌株、人类巨核红细胞祖细胞以及动物肾脏上皮细胞等。对此类真菌毒素毒性的总结,可进一步加深对毒素的认识,并为食品、饲料及中药安全性方面相关的法律法规制订提供重要依据。     

Fusarium mycotoxin content of UK organic and conventional wheat

Each year (2001–2005), 300 samples of wheat from fields of known agronomy were analysed for ten trichothecenes by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) including deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol, 3-acetyl-DON, 15-acetyl-DON, fusarenone X, T2 toxin, HT2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, neosolaniol and T-2 triol and zearalenone by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Of the eleven mycotoxins analysed from 1624 harvest samples of wheat, only eight were detected, and of these only five–deoxynivalenol, 15-acetyl-DON, nivalenol, HT-2 and zearalenone–were detected above 100 µg kg^?1. DON was the most frequently detected Fusarium mycotoxin, present above the limit of quantification (10 µg kg^?1) in 86% of samples, and was usually present at the highest concentration. The percentage of samples that would have exceeded the recently introduced legal limits varied between 0.4% and 11.3% over the five-year period. There was a good correlation between DON and zearalenone concentrations, although the relative concentration of DON and zearalenone fluctuated between years. Year and region had a significant effect on all mycotoxins analysed. There was no significant difference in the DON concentration of organic and conventional samples. There was also no significant difference in the concentration of zearalenone between organic and conventional samples, however organic samples did have a significantly lower concentration of HT2 and T2. Overall, the risk of UK wheat exceeding the newly introduced legal limits for Fusarium mycotoxins in cereals intended for human consumption is low, but the percentage of samples above these limits will fluctuate between years.     

Multimycotoxin Determination in Tunisian Farm Animal Feed

Mycotoxins presence was evaluated in animal feed marketed in Tunisia for the first time ever. A QuEChERS method was performed to analyze the natural copresence of 22 mycotoxins (enniatins, beauvericin, ochratoxin A, aflatoxins, alternariol monomethyl ether, alternariol, tentoxin, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, 3‐acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15‐acetyldeoxynivalenol, nivalenol, neosolaniol, diacetoxyscirpenol, T‐2 toxin, and HT‐2 toxin) in 122 Tunisian marketed feed samples, intended for poultry (n = 43), cattle (n = 35), rabbit (n = 12), sheep (n = 16), and horse (n = 16). Analytes detection and quantification were done using both liquid chromatography and gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The analytical method showed good linearity (R > 0.996) and sensitivity, the limits of quantification ranged from 0.1 ng/g (enniatin A1) to 225 ng/g (3‐acetyldeoxynivalenol). Eighty‐five percent of the analyzed samples were positive. Poultry (n = 43) and rabbit (n = 12) feed samples were the most contaminated. Enniatin B was the most prevalent mycotoxin with values ranged between 0.5 ng/g for horse feed and 40 ng/g for poultry feed, followed by deoxynivalenol detected from 16 ng/g in cattle feed to 250 ng/g in poultry feed. None exceeded the limits set by EU recommendations for animal feed. Mycotoxins co‐occurrence was observed at most by five different mycotoxins (26%) and up to eight mycotoxins was recorded in 5% of samples. Furthermore, a relatively high copresence rate of different fusariotoxins was registered. Even if no toxicological concern was clearly revealed, the contamination is a real fact and will probably present influence on meat production and on food safety.     

河南省粮食及其制品中真菌毒素污染情况调查

目的了解河南省市售粮食及其制品中真菌毒素污染的种类和程度。方法 2018—2019年采集河南省市售粮食及其制品,采用同位素稀释超高效液相色谱-串联质谱(UPLC-MS/MS)法测定16种真菌毒素含量,检测结果按照GB 2761—2017《食品安全国家标准食品中真菌毒素限量》进行评价分析。结果 100份玉米面、玉米渣及玉米粒中伏马菌素、玉米赤霉烯酮、黄曲霉毒素、脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇是主要污染真菌毒素,检出率范围为0.0%～95.7%;220份小麦粉、面条和馒头中脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇检出率分别为78.0%(124/159)、64.3%(18/28)和87.9%(29/33);其他真菌毒素含量较低或未检出。结论河南省粮食及其制品中存在不同程度的真菌毒素污染问题,尤其是玉米及其制品中伏马菌素有较高的检出率,应及时开展溯源调查,尽快采取相应控制措施。     

Occurrence,prevention and remediation of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in silage: a review

Ruminants are considered to be less sensitive towards mycotoxins than monogastric animals because rumen microbiota have mycotoxin‐detoxifying capacities. Therefore the effect of mycotoxins towards ruminants has been studied to a lesser extent compared with monogastric animals. Worldwide, a high proportion of the ruminant diet consists of silages made of forage crops (i.e. all parts of the crop above the stubble are harvested). In practice, silages are often contaminated with multiple mycotoxins. Exposure to a cocktail of mycotoxins can hamper animal production and have severe health consequences. In this article the different aspects associated with mycotoxin contamination of silage are reviewed ‘from seed to feed’. An overview is given on the occurrence of toxigenic fungal species and their concomitant mycotoxins in forage crops before and after ensiling. The mycotoxin load of visually non‐mouldy samples and mouldy hot spots within the same silo is also compared. Subsequently, this review delves into different problem‐solving strategies. A logical first step is prevention of mould growth and mycotoxin production in the field, during harvest and during ensiling. If prevention should fail, several remediation strategies are available. These are listed, mainly focusing on the possibilities of microbial degradation of mycotoxins in vivo in silage. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry     

Presence and concentrations of the Fusarium-related mycotoxins beauvericin, enniatins and moniliformin in finnish grain samples

Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin, enniatins (A, A1, B, B1) and moniliformin were analysed in 38 Finnish grain samples (14 wheat, 22 barley, one rye, one oats) harvested in 2001-02. The contaminating Fusarium species were identified with the primer-specific polymerase chain reaction as well as with morphological studies. All the studied mycotoxins were found in the samples. Enniatins B and B1 were detected in all samples, and enniatin A, enniatin A1, beauvericin and moniliformin in 74, 95, 95 and 74% of the samples, respectively. There were higher concentrations of the mycotoxins analysed in 2001 compared with 2002. The highest levels of mycotoxins were detected in samples harvested late in the autumn after a long rainy period. Fusarium avenaceum was the most abundant Fusarium species in Finland during both years (0-29.5%) measured as infected kernels. A significant correlation was found between F. avenaceum contamination level and the concentration levels of enniatins B and B1, as well as moniliformin.