Occurrence and dietary exposure assessment of multiple mycotoxins in corn-based food products from Shandong,China

This study was designed to investigate the occurrence and exposure assessment of multiple mycotoxins in corn-based food products from Shandong Province, China. Results demonstrated that the mean level of total mycotoxins in test samples was 197.2 µg/kg. The most frequently found mycotoxins were deoxynivalenol (96.7%) and fumonisin B₁ (94.4%), with mean contamination levels of 65.24 and 128.2, respectively. Among these corn-based food products, thin corn pancake had the highest mean contamination (886.7 µg/kg), followed by wotou (143.7 µg/kg), corn cake (135.4 µg/kg) and mantou (63.73 µg/kg). The average exposure values to total fumonisins and deoxynivalenol were 0.05 and 0.02 µg/kg bw/day, which were lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake values of 2 and 1 µg/kg bw/day, respectively, as established by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. In the future strict control and systematic monitoring are needed to secure food safety and human health.     

论食品安全暴露评估模拟模型

通过对世界各国研究较为先进的食品安全风险评估中最重要的暴露评估阶段所采用的各种模拟模型进行系统地研究,分别从3个方面包括:结合食品消费量及化学物浓度的暴露评估模型、膳食暴露的决定论与概率论模型、急性与慢性摄入量模型做了介绍并且比较各自的优缺点,给食品安全暴露评估模拟模型的建立提供了有力的参考依据和发展方向。     

HS-GC/MS method development and exposure assessment of volatile organic compounds from food packaging into food simulants

ABSTRACT

A simultaneous headspace-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (HS-GC/MS) method was developed and validated to determine the migration of 12 volatile organic compounds (methanol, acetone, methylethylketone, ethylacetate, isopropylalcohol, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, cumene, propylbenzene, and styrene) from food contact materials into food simulants (water, 4% acetic acid, 50% ethanol, and n-heptane). The limits of detection and quantification were 0.007–0.201 mg L^?1 and 0.023–0.668 mg L^?1, respectively. The method was applied to 205 samples of paper/paperboard, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyethylene terephthalate. The estimated daily intake (EDI) was calculated using the migration results. Exposure assessments were carried out to compare the EDI to the tolerable daily intake (TDI); the results indicated that the EDI of styrene represented only a small percentage (8.0%) of the TDI. This analytical method will be a useful tool to examine levels of various volatile compounds migrating from food packaging to food simulants using HS-GC/MS method.     

Simultaneous analysis and exposure assessment of migrated bisphenol analogues,phenol, and p-tert-butylphenol from food contact materials

ABSTRACT

A simple, rapid, and novel liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated to determine levels of eight bisphenol analogues (A, S, F, B, P, AF, AP, and Z), phenol, and p-tert-butylphenol migrated from food contact material (FCM) into food simulants. Method validation showed acceptable values in terms of linearity, precision, and accuracy. The limits of detection and quantification were 0.53–29.6 and 1.77–29.6 μg L^?1, respectively. Water, 4% acetic acid, 50% ethanol, and n-heptane were employed as food simulants for the migration tests, and the proposed method was applied to 234 articles of 11 FCMs including polycarbonate, polyethersulfone, polypropylene, and polyethyleneterephthalate, obtained from domestic markets and manufacturers in Korea. Only phenol was found in the FCMs poly(cyclophexane-1,4-dimethylene terephthalate), polylactide, and thermoplastic polyurethane. Eight bisphenol analogues and p-tert-butyl phenol were not found in any samples. Using the obtained migration results, the estimated daily intake (EDI) of phenol was calculated. Exposure assessments were carried out to compare the EDI with the tolerable daily intake (TDI), showing a low percentage (0.18%) of the TDI reported. This is the first study to examine eight bisphenol analogues and two phenols simultaneously in FCMs using the LC-MS/MS.     

Risk assessment of plant food supplements and other herbal products containing aristolochic acids using the margin of exposure (MOE) approach

ABSTRACT

After the incidences of induction of aristolochic acid nephropathy after consumption of herbal weight loss preparations that accidentally contained aristolochic acids (AAs), several countries defined national restrictions on the presence of AAs in food, including plant food supplements (PFS) and herbal products. This study investigates whether the risks associated with exposure to AAs via PFS and herbal products are at present indeed negligible. Data reported in literature on AA levels in PFS and other herbal products and also obtained from a new series of PFS in the present study were used to calculate the estimated daily intakes (EDIs) and corresponding margins of exposure (MOEs). Available literature data revealed that 206 out of 573 samples were found to contain aristolochic acid I (AAI) and/or aristolochic acid II (AAII). The results obtained from recently collected PFS revealed that both AAI and AAII were detected in three out of 18 analysed PFS at levels up to 594.8 and 235.3 µg g^–1, respectively, being in line with the levels reported in literature. The EDIs resulting from intake of these PFS resulted in MOEs that were generally below 10,000, corroborating the priority for risk management. Although these results refer to PFS collected by targeted sampling strategies, the data reveal that AA-containing PFS are still freely available. When considering that the use of these samples may be limited to shorter periods of time, the EDIs might be lower, but MOE values would still be lower than 10,000 for more than 50% of the AA-containing PFS and herbal products. In conclusion, the presence of AAs in PFS and herbal products even several years after instalment of the legal restrictions still raises concern, especially for people who frequently use the respective PFS and herbal products.     

Effects of thermal food processing on the chemical structure and toxicity of fumonisin mycotoxins

Fumonisins are Fusarium mycotoxins that occur in corn and corn-based foods. They are toxic to animals and at least one analogue, fumonisin B1, is carcinogenic to rodents. Their effect on human health is unclear, however, fumonisins are considered to be risk factors for cancer and possibly neural tube defects in some heavily exposed populations. It is therefore important to minimize exposures in these populations. Cleaning corn to remove damaged or moldy kernels reduces fumonisins in foods while milling increases their concentration in some and reduces their concentration in other products. Fumonisins are water-soluble and nixtamalization (cooking in alkaline water) lowers the fumonisin content of food products if the cooking liquid is discarded. Baking, frying, and extrusion cooking of corn at high temperatures ( > or = 190 degrees C) also reduces fumonisin concentrations in foods, with the amount of reduction achieved depending on cooking time, temperature, recipe, and other factors. However, the chemical fate of fumonisins in baked, fried, and extruded foods is not well understood and it is not known if the reduced concentrations result from thermal decomposition of fumonisins or from their binding to proteins, sugars or other compounds in food matrices. These possibilities might or might not be beneficial depending upon the bioavailability and inherent toxicity of decomposition products or the degree to which bound fumonisins are released in the gastrointestinal tract. In this review the affects of cooking and processing on the concentration and chemical structure of fumonisins as well as the toxicological consequences of known and likely fumonisin reaction products are discussed.     

Long-term dietary exposure to lead in young European children: comparing a pan-European approach with a national exposure assessment

Long-term dietary exposures to lead in young children were calculated by combining food consumption data of 11 European countries categorised using harmonised broad food categories with occurrence data on lead from different Member States (pan-European approach). The results of the assessment in children living in the Netherlands were compared with a long-term lead intake assessment in the same group using Dutch lead concentration data and linking the consumption and concentration data at the highest possible level of detail. Exposures obtained with the pan-European approach were higher than the national exposure calculations. For both assessments cereals contributed most to the exposure. The lower dietary exposure in the national study was due to the use of lower lead concentrations and a more optimal linkage of food consumption and concentration data. When a pan-European approach, using a harmonised food categorisation system and “European” concentration data, results in a possible health risk related to the intake of an environmental chemical for a certain country, it is advisable to refine this assessment, as part of a tiered approach, using national occurrence data, including an optimised linkage between foods analysed and consumed for that country. In the case of lack of occurrence data, these data can be supplemented with data from the “European” concentration database or by generating additional concentration data at country level.     

Dietary exposure to mycotoxins of the Hong Kong adult population from a Total Diet Study

Dietary exposure of Hong Kong adults to mycotoxins and their metabolites including aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FNs), deoxynivalenol (DON), acetyldeoxynivalenols (AcDONs) and zearalenone (ZEA) was estimated using the Total Diet Study (TDS) approach to assess the associated health risk to the local people. Sixty commonly consumed food items, collected in four seasons, were sampled and prepared as consumed. These mycotoxins were primarily found at low levels. The highest mean levels (upper bound) were: AFs, 1.50 µg kg^–1 in legumes, nuts and seed; OTA, 0.22 µg kg^–1 in sugars and confectionery; FNs, 9.76 µg kg^–1 in cereals and their products; DON and AcDONs, 33.1 µg kg^–1 in cereals and their products; and ZEA, 53.8 µg kg^–1 in fats and oils. The estimated dietary exposures of Hong Kong adults to the mycotoxins analysed were well below the respective health-based guidance values, where available. For AFs, the upper-bound exposure for high consumers is 0.0049 µg kg bw^–1 day^–1, which was estimated to contribute to about 7.7 (< 1%) of liver cancer cases when compared with 1222 liver cancer cases per year in Hong Kong. The percentage contributions of the estimated 95th percentile dietary exposures (lower and upper bound) to the health-based guidance values of individual mycotoxins were: ochratoxin A, 3.6–9.2%; fumonisins, 0.04–8.5%; deoxynivalenol and acetyldeoxynivalenols, 21.7–28.2%; and zearalenone 3.3–34.5%. The findings indicate that dietary exposures to all the mycotoxins analysed in this study were unlikely to pose an unacceptable health risk to the Hong Kong population.     

食品加工技术对于食品过敏原的影响

食物过敏是当前食品安全领域较为突出的问题,一些食品加工方法如脱皮、加热可从一定程度上降低食品的致敏性,脱敏效果与加工的方式以及过敏原的种类密切相关。本文综述了对一般加工方法对于减轻过敏反应的作用。     

Effects of daily food processing on allergenicity

Daily food processing has the potential to alter the allergenicity of foods due to modification of the physico-chemical properties of proteins. The degree of such modifications depends on factors such as processing conditions, type of food considered, allergenic content, etc. The impact of daily food processing like boiling, roasting, frying or baking on food allergenicity have been extensively studied. The influence of other thermal treatments such as microwave heating or pressure cooking on allergenicity has also been analyzed. Non-thermal treatment such as peeling impacts on the allergenic content of certain foods such as fruits. In this review, we give an updated overview of the effects of daily processing treatments on the allergenicity of a wide variety of foods. The different variables that contribute to the modification of food allergenicity due to processing are also reviewed and discussed.     

Dietary exposure assessment of synthetic food colours using analytical concentrations in Korea

ABSTRACT

The safety of nine synthetic colour additives approved in Korea were assessed through hazard identification, hazard characterisation, exposure assessment, and risk characterisation. Hazard identification and characterisation were conducted using new risk information based on toxicology data. Exposure assessment calculated the estimated daily intake (EDI) of the nine colours. Finally, the risk was evaluated by comparing the EDIs of the colours with the acceptable daily intake (ADI). 1,114 samples (24 food categories) among a total of 1,454 samples contained colour additives either at a level that was not detectable or up to a quantified maximum of 288 mg kg^?1. The likelihood of risk of exposure to all food colours, evaluated by comparing the EDI with the ADI, was less than 0.52% of the ADI for the general population. These results indicate that use of synthetic food colour in Korea is safe and does not result in excessive exposure to any population group.     

膜技术在食品加工中的应用

膜技术是一项新兴的高效分离技术,为食品工业的发展发挥了重要的作用。在果蔬汁、乳制品、粮油加工和酿造工业、制糖工业中得到了广泛应用,并产生了巨大的经济效应和社会效应。     

食物加工方法对亚麻木酚素稳定性影响的研究

通过分析蒸、煮、炒、炸样品中亚麻木酚素(SDG)的含量,研究了食物的加工方法、加工时间以及用于分解生氰糖苷的微波处理对亚麻籽粉中SDG的影响。结果显示,亚麻籽粉可以作为一种健康食物补充剂添加到大多数的食物中,食物加工方法对其中SDG含量的影响不大,但亚麻籽粉可能并不是一种有效的汤类食物原料。     

Meta-analysis of food processing on pesticide residues in fruits

The combining and quantifying effects of food processing on pesticide residues in fruits were analysed by a meta-analysis approach. Data were collected from many publications and used to calculate response ratios, confidence intervals and intra-assay coefficients of variation. The response ratios for washing by tap water, boiling and sun drying were 0.59, 0.71 and 0.65, respectively, indicating that they could reduce the pesticide residues effectively. Peeling and juicing, where response ratios were 0.11 and 0.14, respectively, showed they could reduce the pesticide residues to a very small extent. An increase of pesticide residues was indicated by oven drying with a response ratio of more than 1. Oven drying and sun drying indicated both a reduction and an increase at the 99.5% confidence interval. The response ratios given by a meta-analysis approach could be used as processing factors in food safety risk assessment and as a guide for consumers on how to reduce pesticides effectively in fruit.     

Lead exposure from food: the German LExUKon project

Lead is a highly toxic contaminant with food being the major source of exposure for the general public. The second German food consumption survey (Nationale Verzehrsstudie II – NVS II) with about 20 000 participants (15 371 for dietary history interviews used for this study) allowed for an updated exposure assessment for the German population. Based on these comprehensive data, information on consumption of 545 individual food items by the German population was generated. Lead concentrations in food were compiled from the German food monitoring programme, European countries’ authority programmes and the published literature, covering the years from 2000 to 2009, and were multiplied with consumption data to obtain estimates of lead intake from food. Average lead concentrations per main food group were highest for meat (including offal), followed by fish (including seafood), vegetables and cereals. Due to high consumption, beverages contributed most to the intake of the general public, followed by main groups vegetables, fruits & nuts and cereals. Lead intake from food was estimated to be 0.53 and 0.72 µg kg^–1 bw and day for average and high-end consumers, respectively. This is close to (average consumers) respectively above (high-end consumers) a reference value derived from a recent health risk evaluation performed by EFSA, using the benchmark approach. Uncertainties in these estimates pertain to the influence of values below the limit of quantification and some foods not considered due to lacking occurrence data. In conclusion, the estimated lead intake of the German population from food is still close to health-based reference values. Further efforts to reduce lead intake are required.     

Cadmium exposure from food: the German LExUKon project

Cadmium is a very toxic contaminant with food being the major source of exposure for the general public. The second German food consumption survey (Nationale Verzehrsstudie II – NVS II) with about 20 000 participants (15 371 for dietary history interviews used for this study) allowed for an updated exposure assessment for the German population. Based on these comprehensive data, information on the consumption of 545 individual food items by the German population was generated. Cadmium concentrations in food were compiled from the German food monitoring programme, European countries’ authority programmes and the published literature, covering the years from 1993 to 2008, and were multiplied with consumption data to obtain estimates of cadmium intake from food. Consumption-weighted mean cadmium concentrations per main food group were highest for cereals, followed by oily seeds & fruits, and vegetables. Due to both high consumption and considerable occurrence of cadmium, cereals and vegetables contributed most to the intake of the general public, followed by the main groups beverages, fruits & nuts, and dairy products (including milk). Cadmium intake from food was estimated to be 1.46 and 2.35 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1 for average and high-end consumers, respectively. This corresponds to 58% for average and 95% for high-end consumers, respectively, of a reference value derived from a recent health risk evaluation performed by EFSA, using the benchmark approach. Uncertainties in these estimates pertain to the influence of values below the limit of quantification and some foods not considered due to lacking occurrence data. In conclusion, the estimated cadmium intake of the German population from food is still close to health-based reference values. Further efforts to reduce cadmium intake are required.     

Fluoride in tea from Shandong Province,China and exposure assessment

ABSTRACT

In this study fluoride in 170 tea samples from Shandong province (China) was determined using a selective ion electrode. The fluoride concentrations ranged from 31.2 to 338 mg/kg with an average of 119 mg/kg. The mean fluoride concentrations were 164, 121, 98.7 and 96.8 mg/kg, which corresponded to Pu’erh tea, green tea, oolong tea and black tea, respectively. Moreover, 4.7% of the analysed samples exceed the legal limit of 200 mg/kg recommended by China. The estimated daily intake of fluoride via drinking tea for an adult was between 0.655 and 1.07 mg/person/day, which were lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake value of 3.5 mg/person/day set by the National Health and Family Planning Commission of the People’s Republic of China. In future, maintaining a surveillance programme to monitor the trend of fluoride in tea is necessary for food safety and human health.     

微波技术在食品加工与检测中应用

微波技术在现代高新技术领域具有重要地位,具有快速、节能、清洁等优点;目前微波技术发展很快、涉及面也很广,在食品加工和检测方面得到广泛应用.该文介绍微波技术在食品加工和检测中研究与应用进展.     

Estimated dietary exposure to principal food mycotoxins from The First French Total Diet Study

This study reports estimates on dietary exposure from the first French Total Diet Study (FTDS) and compares these estimates with both existing tolerable daily intakes for these toxins and the intakes calculated during previous French studies. To estimate the dietary exposure of the French population to the principal mycotoxins in the French diet (as consumed), 456 composite samples were prepared from 2280 individual samples and analysed for aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins and patulin. Average and high percentile intakes were calculated taking account of different eating patterns for adults, children and vegetarians. The results showed that contaminant levels observed in the foods examined 'as consumed' complied fully with current European legislation. However, particular attention needs to be paid to the exposure of specific population groups, such as children and vegans/macrobiotics, who could be exposed to certain mycotoxins in quantities that exceed the tolerable or weekly daily intake levels. This observation is particularly relevant with respect to ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone. For these mycotoxins, cereals and cereal products were the main contributors to high exposure.     

Risk assessment of exposure to mycotoxins (aflatoxins and fumonisins) through corn tortilla intake in Veracruz City (Mexico)

This study aimed to assess aflatoxin and fumonisin intake through corn tortilla consumption in Veracruz city. Between October 2013 and February 2015, a total of 120 corn tortilla samples (2 kg samples, 40 samples per year) were randomly collected. Aflatoxins and fumonisins were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with a fluorescence detector. A probability density function (PDF) was used for describing corn tortilla intake, body weight of the Veracruz city population, mycotoxin content of corn tortilla samples and estimated mycotoxin daily intake. The Monte Carlo method with 10,000 iterations was employed to assess the population exposure risk. The highest level of total aflatoxins (AFT) was 22.17 μg kg^?1, and 526.6 μg kg^?1 for fumonisins B₁ plus B₂, with 85% and 90% of contaminated samples respectively. Up to 69.7 % of the population was estimated to consume a higher aflatoxin dose than that recommended by the JECFA (1 ng kg^?1 of body weight per day); it was found that the recommended dose was exceeded to a greater extent in the male population, due to higher consumption of corn. The risk of fumonisin intake was less than 5 % due to the low presence and levels of these toxins in corn tortillas. The results suggest that corn tortilla consumers are at dietary risk caused by AFT contamination; this information should be considered when taking action to protect public health.