Multi-mycotoxins Analysis in Dried Fruit by LC/MS/MS and a Modified QuEChERS Procedure

A sensitive and reliable multi-mycotoxin method was developed for the simultaneous determination of 16 toxicological important mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂; enniatins A, A₁, B, and B₁; beauvericin; ochratoxin A; fumonisin B₁, B₂, and B₃; diacetoxyscirprenol; HT-2; and T-2 toxin in dried fruits using liquid chromatography combined with electrospray ionization-triple quadrupole tandem-mass spectrometry. Mycotoxins have been extracted from the samples using a modified quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe procedure. The method was based on a single extraction with acidified acetonitrile, followed by partitioning with salts, avoiding any further clean-up step. Limits of detections ranged from 0.08 to 15 μg kg^?1 and limits of quantification ranged from 0.2 to 45 μg kg^?1, which were below the legal limit set by the European Union for the legislated mycotoxines. The recoveries in spiked samples ranged from 60 to 135 % except for beauvericin using matrix-matched calibration curves for quantification, with good inter- and intraday repeatability (respective relative standard deviation ≤20 and 9 %). The developed method was applied to 15 commercial dried fruits: raisins, figs, apricots, plums, and dates purchased in local markets from Spain. Among the mycotoxins studied, enniantins and aflatoxins were the most predominant mycotoxins.     

On fumonisin incidence in monoculture maize under no‐till,conventional tillage and two nitrogen fertilisation levels

BACKGROUND: Fusarium ear rot and fumonisin contamination are serious problems for maize growers. The lack of maize genotypes highly resistant to fumonisin contamination emphasises the need for management strategies to prevent contamination by this mycotoxin. There are conflicting reports regarding no‐till and nitrogen (N) fertilisation practices in relation to the incidence of fumonisins. In this study the effect of no‐till compared with conventional tillage and of N fertilisation rates on fumonisin occurrence was investigated over three years in Northern Italy. RESULTS: The average contamination of grain by fumonisins B₁ and B₂ over the three years was significantly different, with a lower value in 2000 (516 µg kg^?1) than in the other years (5846 and 3269 µg kg^?1 in 2001 and 2002 respectively). Conventional tillage and no‐till treatments had no significant effect on the incidence of fumonisins. This finding suggests that above‐ground residues infected by Fusarium would not lead to an increase in fumonisin incidence. However, N fertilisation significantly increased fumonisin levels, by 99 and 70% in 2000 and 2001 respectively. CONCLUSION: Maize monoculture does not show a cumulative effect on the occurrence of fumonisins, while high rates of N fertiliser consistently result in elevated fumonisin levels. Both these effects can be influenced by annual meteorological fluctuations. Copyright © 2008 Society of Chemical Industry     

Determination of Fusarium toxins in functional vegetable milks applying salting-out-assisted liquid–liquid extraction combined with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

ABSTRACT

Vegetable milks are considered as functional foods due to their physiological benefits. Although the consumption of these products has significantly increased, they have received little attention in legislation with regard to contaminants. However, they may contain mycotoxins resulting from the use of contaminated raw materials. In this work, ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry has been proposed for the determination of the most relevant Fusarium toxins (fumonisin B₁ and B₂, HT-2 and T-2 toxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and fusarenon-X) in different functional beverages based on cereals, legumes and seeds. Sample treatment consisted of a simple salting-out-assisted liquid–liquid extraction with no further clean-up. The method provided limits of quantification between 3.2 and 57.7 µg L^?1, recoveries above 80% and precision with RSD lower than 12%. The method was also applied for studying the occurrence of these mycotoxins in market samples of vegetable functional beverages and deoxynivalenol was found in three oat-based commercial drinks.     

Occurrence of beauvericin and enniatins in wheat flour and corn grits on the Japanese market,and their co-contamination with type B trichothecene mycotoxins

The contamination levels of beauvericin and four enniatins, A, A₁, B and B₁, in 207 samples of wheat flour and corn grits on the Japanese market were determined by an analytical method based on LC-MS/MS. The toxins were extracted from samples with acetonitrile–water (85:15, v/v) and then purified with C18 cartridges. The method was validated in a single laboratory using spiked samples at two levels; the recovery of the five toxins ranged from 91.1% to 113.8%. Enniatin B was frequently detected in imported wheat flour (81.8%) and domestic wheat flour (85.6%), and the highest concentration of enniatin B was present in a domestic wheat sample (633 μg kg^?1). In corn grits, beauvericin was found in 34% of the samples, but enniatins were not detected at all. The maximum concentration of beauvericin in corn grits was 26.1 μg kg^?1. Deoxynivalenol and nivalenol in the same samples were determined by a method using an immunoaffinity column. Co-contamination of deoxynivalenol and enniatins was observed in 61% of the imported wheat samples and in 58% of the domestic wheat samples. These results suggest the need for a risk assessment for cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxins in Japan and a study on the synergistic effect of deoxynivalenol and enniatins.     

Analysis of fumonisin mycotoxins with capillary electrophoresis – mass spectrometry

ABSTRACT

This paper demonstrates the development of an analytical method based on CE coupled to ESI-MS for the identification and quantification of fumonisin mycotoxins. Separation and detection parameters (pH of background electrolyte (BGE), organic modifier content, sheath liquid (SL) composition, MS mode and nebuliser pressure) were optimised. Ammonium formate/ammonia (pH = 9.5) with 10% ACN modifier was found the most suitable BGE. Positive mode MS was used for detection by scanning the m/z range of 400–1200. Separation was highly affected by the nebuliser pressure, a 25% improvement in peak resolution was achieved by applying the optimised parameters. The ‘dilute and shoot’ approach was applied to overcome disturbing effects caused by the matrix of fungi supernatant samples. The available sample volume affected the reproducibility of the measurements greatly: the scattering of peak intensities were between 4 and 11 RSD% instead of 27–195 RSD% for fumonisin B₁ and fumonisin B₂ when the available volume was ~200 µL instead of ~20 µL. Quantitative determinations were carried out in Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum culture supernatant (raw) and mycelium (cleaned up) samples. The optimised method enabled the detection of 11 fumonisins in Fusarium proliferatum inoculated rice samples; 2 of them were quantified based on external calibration and 4 other compounds with fumonisin-like formulas were detected.     

Relative severity of fumonisin contamination of cereal crops in West Africa

Traditional and improved varieties of maize, pearl millet and sorghum were planted by small-scale farmers under the direction of the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture in two Nigerian agro-ecological zones: the Sudan Savanna and the Northern Guinea Savanna. Samples were collected for the determination of Fusarium infection and fumonisin (B₁, B₂ and B₃) contamination. A previous paper reported Aspergillus infection and aflatoxin contamination of these samples. Fusarium infection levels, measured by per cent kernels infected, were modest with mean levels for the above cereals of 16% ± 11% (SD), 12% ± 7% and 13% ± 16%, respectively. However, the Fusarium species recovered from maize were predominantly the fumonisin producers F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum, together making an infection rate of 15% ± 10%, whereas these species were present to a limited extent only in the other two cereals, 1% ± 1% for pearl millet and 2% ± 6% for sorghum. Fumonisin contamination was variable but reflected the diversity of Fusarium producers in these three cereals. Mean levels were 228 ± 579 µg kg^–1 (range < 5–2860 µg kg^–1) for maize, 18 ± 7 µg kg^–1 (range = 6–29 µg kg^–1) for pearl millet and 131 ± 270 µg kg^–1 (range < 5–1340 µg kg^–1) for sorghum. Together with previous results on aflatoxin, this study confirmed the co-occurrence of aflatoxins and fumonisins in maize as well as in the traditional African cereals, millet and sorghum (89% co-occurrence across all three cereals). The low fumonisin levels may be ascribed to the use of good agricultural practices. Of the Fusarium species present, those in maize consisted mainly of fumonisin producers, the opposite of what was observed in pearl millet and sorghum. It is concluded that replacement of maize by pearl millet and sorghum could improve food safety with regards to aflatoxin B and fumonisin B exposure.     

Recent research on fumonisins: a review

Fumonisins are well known mycotoxins produced by Fusarium verticillioides, F. proliferatum and other Fusarium species. Many new fumonisins and fumonisin-like compounds have been detected by mass spectrometry in cultures of F. verticillioides. Recently, fumonisins B₂ and B₄ were produced by Aspergillus niger isolated from coffee and fumonisin B₂ in A. niger from grapes. Fumonisin B₂ was itself detected in coffee beans, wine and beer, adding to the list of foodstuffs and feedstuffs other than corn (maize) and sorghum in which fumonisins have been found in recent years. Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) can bind to proteins (PB FB₁) and to other matrix components during food processing involving heat. The occurrence of bound fumonisins in processed corn foods is common. Another type of binding (or association) relates to observed instability of fumonisins in rice flour, corn starch and corn meal at room temperature; this can affect the immunoaffinity column clean-up procedure in analysis of naturally contaminated starch-containing corn foods for fumonisins. The occurrence of N-fatty acylated fumonisin derivatives in retail fried corn foods has also been demonstrated. Bioaccessibility of free FB₁ and total bound FB₁ (TB FB₁) present in corn flakes has been estimated by in vitro digestion experiments. Intentional binding of fumonisins to cholestyramine has been demonstrated in vivo and is a potential means of detoxification of animal feed.     

Risk assessment of exposure to mycotoxins (aflatoxins and fumonisins) through corn tortilla intake in Veracruz City (Mexico)

This study aimed to assess aflatoxin and fumonisin intake through corn tortilla consumption in Veracruz city. Between October 2013 and February 2015, a total of 120 corn tortilla samples (2 kg samples, 40 samples per year) were randomly collected. Aflatoxins and fumonisins were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with a fluorescence detector. A probability density function (PDF) was used for describing corn tortilla intake, body weight of the Veracruz city population, mycotoxin content of corn tortilla samples and estimated mycotoxin daily intake. The Monte Carlo method with 10,000 iterations was employed to assess the population exposure risk. The highest level of total aflatoxins (AFT) was 22.17 μg kg^?1, and 526.6 μg kg^?1 for fumonisins B₁ plus B₂, with 85% and 90% of contaminated samples respectively. Up to 69.7 % of the population was estimated to consume a higher aflatoxin dose than that recommended by the JECFA (1 ng kg^?1 of body weight per day); it was found that the recommended dose was exceeded to a greater extent in the male population, due to higher consumption of corn. The risk of fumonisin intake was less than 5 % due to the low presence and levels of these toxins in corn tortillas. The results suggest that corn tortilla consumers are at dietary risk caused by AFT contamination; this information should be considered when taking action to protect public health.     

Occurrence and dietary exposure assessment of multiple mycotoxins in corn-based food products from Shandong,China

This study was designed to investigate the occurrence and exposure assessment of multiple mycotoxins in corn-based food products from Shandong Province, China. Results demonstrated that the mean level of total mycotoxins in test samples was 197.2 µg/kg. The most frequently found mycotoxins were deoxynivalenol (96.7%) and fumonisin B₁ (94.4%), with mean contamination levels of 65.24 and 128.2, respectively. Among these corn-based food products, thin corn pancake had the highest mean contamination (886.7 µg/kg), followed by wotou (143.7 µg/kg), corn cake (135.4 µg/kg) and mantou (63.73 µg/kg). The average exposure values to total fumonisins and deoxynivalenol were 0.05 and 0.02 µg/kg bw/day, which were lower than the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake values of 2 and 1 µg/kg bw/day, respectively, as established by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. In the future strict control and systematic monitoring are needed to secure food safety and human health.     

Toxicity profile of commercially produced indigenous banana beer

Mycotoxins, together with endotoxins, represent important classes of naturally occurring contaminants in food products, posing significant health risks to consumers. The aim of this study is to investigate the occurrence of both Fusarium mycotoxins and endotoxins in commercially produced traditional banana beer. Two brands of commercially produced traditional banana beer were collected from a local retail market in Kigali, Rwanda. Beer samples were analysed for the presence of deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B₁ and zearalenone (ZEA), using an enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA) method. The quantification of bacterial endotoxin using Limulus amoeboecyte lysate (LAL) assay was also conducted. The contamination levels were 20 and 6.7?µg?kg^?1 for DON; 34 and 31.3?µg?kg^?1 for FB₁; 0.66 and 2.2?µg?kg^?1 for ZEA in brands A and B of the beers, respectively. Results indicate that the levels of Fusarium toxins and bacterial endotoxin reported in this study did not pose adverse human health effects as a result of drinking/consuming banana beer. However, exposure to low/sub-threshold doses or non-toxic levels of endotoxins magnifies the toxic effect of xenobiotic agents (e.g. fungal toxins) on liver and other target organs. Considering Fusarium toxins and/or endotoxin contamination levels in other agricultural commodities intended for human consumption, health risks might be high and the condition is aggravated when beer is contaminated by mixtures of the mycotoxins, as indicated in this study.     

Aflatoxin B1 and total fumonisin contamination and their producing fungi in fresh and stored sorghum grain in East Hararghe,Ethiopia

Natural contamination of sorghum grains by aflatoxin B₁ and total fumonisin and their producing toxigenic fungi has been studied. A total of 90 sorghum grain samples were collected from small-scale farmers’ threshing floors and 5–6 months later from underground pits during 2013 harvest from three districts of East Hararghe, Ethiopia. Mycotoxin analysis was done using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The limits of detection were in the range 0.01–0.03 μg kg^–1. The results revealed that all sorghum grain samples were contaminated with both Aspergillus and Fusarium species. Aflatoxin B₁ was detected at levels ranging from ?1 grain. There were marked variations in aflatoxin B₁ concentrations between fresh and stored samples, with much higher levels in the latter. Total fumonisin levels varied between 907 and 2041 µg kg^?1 grain across the samples. Lowest total fumonisin was recorded in freshly harvested sorghum grain samples. Sorghum is a main staple cereal in the studied districts and its consumption per day per person is high. Daily intake of low doses of mycotoxin-contaminated food stuff over a period of time could lead to chronic mycotoxicosis.     

Fumonisin B1 and B2 occurrence in dried fig fruits (Ficus carica L.) under Meander Valley's climatic conditions and relationship with fruit quality

Fusarium is the agent causing endosepsis (internal rot) in fig fruits and it is widespread in fig orchards in the Aegean region. This research was conducted to determine the natural occurrence of fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and B₂ (FB₂) on dried fig fruits of Sarilop (syn. Calimyrna) variety which are mainly grown in the Big and Small Meander Basins in the Aegean region, representing 60% of world dried fig production. A total of 262 samples belonging to two quality classes, Class A and Class cull, were collected from 12 different locations during the two crop years in 2004 and 2005. The fumonisin detection method is based on extraction with methanol–acetonitrile–water, derivatization with o-phthaldehyde and quantification by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The mean concentrations of FB₁ and FB₂ in fumonisin-positive samples were 0.080?±?0.047?µg?g^?1 and 0.055?±?0.031?µg?g^?1 and ranged from LOD to 0.332?µg?g^?1 and from LOD to 0.198?µg?g^?1, respectively. The incidence of fumonisins significantly differed between the two crop years. This difference can be attributed to the alteration in the rainfall regime from mid-May to mid-August (7.2?mm in 2004, 90.9?mm in 2005) and number of humid wind currents from a westerly direction (183 in 2004, 492 in 2005) from the end of July and mid-August that may have triggered a higher incidence of Fusarium spp. and thus fumonisin production.     

Absorption,distribution and elimination of fumonisin B1 metabolites in weaned piglets

The absorption, distribution and elimination of fumonisin B₁ (and B₂) after oral administration of Fusarium verticillioides (MRC 826) fungal culture, mixed into the experimental feed for 10 days, was studied in weaned barrows. In order to determine the absorption of FB₁ from the feed marked by chromium oxide, a special T-cannula was implanted into the distal part of pigs’ ileum. During the feeding of toxin-containing diet (45 mg FB₁ kg^?1) and until the tenth day after the end of treatment, the total quantity of urine and faeces was collected and their toxin content analysed. At the end of the trial, samples of lung, liver, kidney, brain, muscle, and fat were also collected and their fumonisin content analysed by LC-MS. The fumonisins appeared to decrease the reduced glutathione content in blood plasma and red blood cell haemolysate, possibly associated with in vivo lipid peroxidation. From a data set of 80 individual data and the concentration and rate of C _r and fumonisins (FB₁, partially hydrolysed FB₁ and aminopentol) in the chymus, it could be established that the accumulative absorption of fumonisin B₁ was 3.9% ± 0.7%. In the chymus, the FB₁ conversions into aminopentol and partially hydrolysed FB₁ were 1.0 and 3.9%, respectively. The degree of metabolism in faeces was variable, although the main product was the partially hydrolysed form, with very small amounts of the aminopentol moiety being recovered. In the investigated tissues the FB₁ conversion to aminopentol and partially hydrolysed FB₁ was 30 and 20%, respectively.     

Development and validation of an UHPLC-MS/MS method for the determination of mycotoxins in grass silages

An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) multi-mycotoxin analytical method was developed to simultaneously identify and quantify 20 mycotoxins in grass silages, inclusive of mycotoxins that are currently regulated in European Union feeds. Extraction of mycotoxins from dried grass silages was performed using of a modified QuEChERS extraction employing an acidified aqueous extraction (0.1 N HCl) with no further clean-up. Following chromatographic separation, analytes were detected using a fast polarity-switching MS/MS method that allowed both positive and negative ions to be analysed from a single injection, thus the reducing time and cost of analysis. The limits of detection and quantification ranged between 3 µg kg^–1 DM (aflatoxin B₁, beauvericin and enniatin A and A₁) and 200 µg kg^–1 DM (deoxynivalenol), and between 10 µg kg^–1 DM (aflatoxin B₁, beauvericin and enniatin A₁) and 500 µg kg^–1 DM (deoxynivalenol), respectively. Inter-assay accuracy and precision ranged between 90% and 107% and between 3.9% and 15.0% CV, respectively. The accuracy of the method was assessed through the application to a range of incurred samples in an inter-laboratory study.     

Mycotoxin contamination of maize hybrids after infection with Fusarium proliferatum

The ear rot severity of nine maize hybrids and the accumulation of fumonisin B₁(FB₁), fumonisin B₂(FB₂), beauvericin (BEA) and fusaproliferin (FP) after artificial inoculation in the field with a toxigenic strain of Fusarium proliferatum have been investigated. Different degrees of ear rot were observed in different hybrids. Inoculated ears contained 11–38% of Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK). Mycotoxin analyses showed a pronounced contamination of FDK with concentrations ranging from 116 to 343 mg kg⁻¹ for FB₁, from 8 to 29 mg kg⁻¹ for FB₂, from 1 to 14 mg kg⁻¹ for BEA and from 2 to 10 mg kg⁻¹ for FP. Lower levels of contamination were found in healthy-looking kernels (up to 26, 2, 0.2 and 0.3 mg kg⁻¹ for FB₁, FB₂, BEA and FP respectively). A good correlation was observed between mycotoxin contamination and the Fusarium ear rot index, calculated on the basis of average ear infection with a scale ranging from 0 to 500 to represent healthy cobs and totally rotted cobs respectively. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry     

Development of a Quantitative Multi-Mycotoxin Method in Rice, Maize, Wheat and Peanut Using UPLC-MS/MS

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi, such as Fusarium, Penicillium, and Aspergillus, which are toxic to humans with high risk factors and pose a significant threat to human health. This study was focused mostly on well-known mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins (AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁ and AFG₂), fumonisin (FB₁, FB₂), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZON), ochratoxin A, T-2 and HT-2, in grains. The multi-mycotoxin methods developed in this study utilise an analysis of mycotoxin through liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), which can significantly improve sample analysis efficiency. The Myco6in1? immunoaffinity column was used for purification to reduce interference from the substrate. Gradient separation to obtain the best peak shift was conducted using solvent with 0.1 % formic acid in deionised water and methanol, and gradient separation was performed on an ACQUITY BEH C18 column chromatograph. The recovery rate test for each toxin using substrates such as rice, peanut, wheat and maize mostly indicated good average recovery rates between 70 % and 120 % and the coefficient of variation mostly under 15 %. The limits of quantification (LOQ) identified by this method are less than 5 ng/g in most toxins, except for 20 ng/g in FB₁and FB₂. This method can rapidly and simultaneously analyse 11 mycotoxins in 9 min. It can be applied for the practical examination of mycotoxins in food to protect public health.     

Fusarium species and fumonisins in subsistence maize in the former Transkei region,South Africa: a multi-year study in rural villages

Fumonisin occurrence was investigated in subsistence maize in four rural villages in each of Mbizana and Centane areas, South Africa. Samples (total 211) were analysed morphologically for Fusarium species and by high performance liquid chromatography for fumonisins. The mean incidence levels of Fusarium verticillioides in Centane good maize were 16% for both 1997 and 2000, but increased to 32% in 2003, whereas Mbizana good maize contained levels of 17% and 11% (2000 and 2003 seasons, respectively). The mean total fumonisin level in good maize in Centane for 1997 and 2000 was 575 and 975 µg/kg and 2150 µg/kg in 2003. In Mbizana, the mean total fumonisin level in good maize for 2000 was 950 µg/kg, but decreased to 610 µg/kg in 2003. The 2003 drought conditions led to a substantial increase in fumonisin levels in dry subhumid Centane, compared to humid subtropical Mbizana. This study emphasises the seasonal fluctuation in fumonisin levels.     

Natural occurrence of fumonisins B1 and B2 in corn in four provinces of China

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) are the most abundant fumonisins (FBs) occurring worldwide in maize, infected mainly by Fusarium verticillioides and F. proliferatum. A total of 307 corn kernel samples were collected from 45 districts of Gansu, Shandong, Ningxia and the Inner Mongolia provinces of the north and northwest China. The samples were analysed for FB₁ and FB₂ by high-performance liquid chromatography. The FBs (FB₁+ FB₂) incidence rate in samples from Gansu, Shandong, Ningxia and Inner Mongolia were 31.5%, 81.1%, 46.2% and 53.6%, respectively. Average FBs concentration was 703 μg/kg and the concentrations ranged from ≤11 to 13,110 μg kg^?1. Results were compared with the European Commission (EC) regulation for FB₁+ FB₂ in unprocessed maize for human consumption of 4 mg kg^?1. Contamination in 17 samples was higher than these levels. More than 80% of the samples from Liaocheng county, which is located in the Shandong province, were contaminated with FBs, with a mean total FB concentration of 2496 μg/kg. The result was significantly different from that of the Inner Mongolia (1399 μg/kg), Ningxia (373 μg/kg) and Gansu (175 μg/kg). Average exposure to FBs (0.12 μg/kg body weight/day) is within the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2.0 mg/kg of body weight set by the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives.     

Evaluation of enniatins A,A1, B,B1 and beauvericin in Portuguese cereal-based foods

Sixty-one samples of Portuguese cereal-based foods were analysed for the occurrence of emerging mycotoxins called enniatins (A, A1, B and B1) and beauvericin. Samples were extracted with a mixture of acetonitrile/water (85/15, v/v) using an Ultra-Turrax homogeniser, and mycotoxins were detected with liquid chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer. This method was validated and adequate values of recovery (70–103%) and relative standard deviation (<15%) were obtained. Signal suppression/enhancement was studied and matrix-matched calibration used to minimise this effect, but no additional clean-up step was necessary. The mass spectrometer was operated in selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode and with selected transitions for each compound to quantify and to qualify them. Fifty-nine per cent of samples were contaminated. The percentages of enniatins were 53%, 49%, 44% and 16% for A1, B, B1, and A, respectively, and for beauvericin it was 1.6%. For the total samples, the mean contamination was 30, 24, 15, 2.1 and 0.1?ng?g^?1 for enniatins A1, B, B1 and A, and beauvericin, respectively. The wheat-based samples showed higher levels and greater prevalence than any other cereals monitored. These results were used to estimate the daily intake of ENs from wheat-based cereal by the Portuguese population. At the same time, the usefulness of this method in the analysis of other important mycotoxins (aflatoxin B₁, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, fumonisin B₁ and zearalenone) was evaluated.     

Fumonisins and their analogues in contaminated corn and its processed foods – a review

ABSTRACT

One of the food security problems faced worldwide is the occurrence of mycotoxins in grains and their foods. Fumonisins (FBs) are mycotoxins which are prevalent in corn (Zea mays L.) and its based foods. Their intake and exposure have been epidemiologically and inconclusively associated with oesophageal cancer and neural tube defects in humans, and other harmful health effects in animals. The toxic effects of FBs can be acute or chronic and these metabolites bioaccumulate mainly in liver and kidney tissues. Among FBs, fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) is the most relevant moiety although the ‘hidden’ forms produced after food thermal processes are becoming relevant. Corn is the grain most susceptible to Fusarium and FBs contamination and the mould growth is affected both by abiotic and biotic factors during grain maturation and storage. Mould counts are mainly affected by the grain water activity, the environmental temperature during grain maturation and insect damage. The abiotic factors affected by climatic change patterns have increased their incidence in other regions of the world. Among FBs, the hidden forms are the most difficult to detect and quantify. Single or combined physical, chemical and biological methods are emerging to significantly reduce FBs in processed foods and therefore diminish their toxicological effects.