Widespread occurrence of perchlorate in water,foodstuffs and human urine collected from Kuwait and its contribution to human exposure

Perchlorate is a thyroid hormone-disrupting compound and is reported to occur widely in the environment. Little is known on human exposure to perchlorate in Kuwait. In this study, 218 water samples, 618 commonly consumed foodstuffs and 532 urine samples collected from Kuwait were analysed to assess the exposure of the Kuwaiti population to perchlorate. For the estimation of daily intake of perchlorate, food consumption rates were obtained from the National Nutrition Survey in the State of Kuwait (NNSSK). The results showed that leafy vegetables accounted for a major share of perchlorate exposure among the Kuwaiti population at 0.062 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 (36.2%), followed by fruits at 0.026 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 (15.3%) and non-leafy vegetables at 0.017 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 (10.1%). The urinary perchlorate geometric mean (GM) concentrations ranged from 8.51 to 17.1 µg l^–1 for the five age groups, which were higher than those reported in other countries. The estimated urinary perchlorate exposure for the Kuwaiti general population was 0.42 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1, which was higher than that reported for the United States. The dietary intake of perchlorate for the Kuwaiti population ranged from 0.14 to 0.67 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 for the five age groups, with a mean total daily intake of 0.17 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 for the general population. The highest estimated dietary mean daily intake of perchlorate (0.67 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1) was found for children at 3–5 years. The estimated dietary perchlorate exposure in Kuwait is higher than the recommended mean reference dose (RfD) but lower than that of provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA).     

Dietary exposures to eight metallic contaminants of the Hong Kong adult population from a total diet study

Dietary exposures to eight metallic contaminants, aluminium (Al), antimony (Sb), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), methylmercury (MeHg), nickel (Ni), tin (Sn) and vanadium (V), of the Hong Kong adult population were estimated using the total diet study (TDS) approach. The estimated mean exposures of Al (0.60 mg kg^–1 bw week^–1), Sb (0.016–0.039 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1), Cd (8.3 µg kg^–1 bw month^–1), Pb (0.21 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1), MeHg (0.74 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1), Ni (3.1 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1), Sn (0.029–0.031 mg kg^–1 bw week^–1) and V (0.13 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1) were well below the relevant health-based guidance values (HBGVs) where available. However, dietary exposures to MeHg of women aged 20–49 years (child-bearing age) accounted for 150% of the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) and to Al and Cd of some high consumers were found exceeding or approaching the HBGVs. The major food contributors of MeHg were fish and seafood (90%), of Al were non-alcoholic beverages including tea (33%), and of Cd were vegetables (36%). MeHg exposure during pregnancy was a public health concern in Hong Kong due to potential health risks to the foetus. Results suggest that there is a need to continue monitoring the exposures to metallic contaminants, especially Al, Cd and MeHg, of the Hong Kong population.     

Assessment of mercury and cadmium via seafood consumption in Italy: estimated dietary intake (EWI) and target hazard quotient (THQ)

Mercury (Hg) and cadmium (Cd) were quantified in fish, cephalopods and crustaceans from Italian supermarkets. Sample compliance with European dietary standards as well as human health risks according to provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) and the methodology of target hazard quotient (THQ) were evaluated. Both element levels were under European legal limits, except for some fish having Hg and Cd contents exceeding or equal to critical values. Estimated weekly intakes (Hg: fish = 0.07–1.44 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; cephalopods = 0.05–0.15 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; crustaceans = 0.04–0.08 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; and Cd: fish = 0.04–0.32 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; cephalopods = 0.07–0.27 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; crustaceans = 0.05–0.11 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1) as well as THQ < 1 were within safe limits. Although there seems to be no important risks associated with seafood consumption, Hg exposure was in some cases close to safety margins and thus levels of this metal should be under frequent surveillance.     

Estimate of dietary exposure to sulphites in child and adult populations in the Basque Country

Sulphites are widely used as a preservative and antioxidant additive in food. The aim of this study was to assess dietary sulphite intake in adults aged 35–65 years and in children aged 4–18 years living in the Basque Country, northern Spain. We determined sulphite concentrations in 909 samples covering 16 food types. The maximum permitted levels were exceeded in 17% of samples. Making recommended assumptions for non-quantifiable results, estimates of mean lower and upper bounds were calculated for sulphite concentrations in each food type. These sulphite data were combined with consumption data derived from 8417 adults from the European Prospective Investigation in Cancer and Nutrition cohort in Gipuzkoa, recruited in 1992–1995 using a diet history method, and 1055 children from the Basque Country Nutrition Children Survey, conducted in 2004–2005 using two 24-h recall questionnaires to assess diet. The results were compared with the acceptable daily intake (ADI) proposed by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The mean dietary exposure to sulphites was 0.08 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1, only 11% of the ADI in the overall group of children (4–18 years old), but the acceptable intake was exceeded by 4% of 4–6 year olds. For the adults (35–65 years old), the mean dietary exposure was 0.31 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1, 45% of the ADI, but the acceptable intake was exceeded in 14.6% of cases. The major contributing foods were minced meat and other meat products for children and wine for adults.     

Safety evaluation of mechanical recycling processes used to produce polyethylene terephthalate (PET) intended for food contact applications

The development of a scheme for the safety evaluation of mechanical recycling processes for polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is described. The starting point is the adoption of a threshold of toxicological concern such that migration from the recycled PET should not give rise to a dietary exposure exceeding 0.0025 μg kg^–1 bw day^–1, the exposure threshold value for chemicals with structural alerts raising concern for potential genotoxicity, below which the risk to human health would be negligible. It is practically impossible to test every batch of incoming recovered PET and every production batch of recycled PET for all the different chemical contaminants that could theoretically arise. Consequently, the principle of the safety evaluation is to measure the cleaning efficiency of a recycling process by using a challenge test with surrogate contaminants. This cleaning efficiency is then applied to reduce a reference contamination level for post-consumer PET, conservatively set at 3 mg kg^–1 PET for a contaminant resulting from possible misuse by consumers. The resulting residual concentration of each contaminant in recycled PET is used in conservative migration models to calculate migration levels, which are then used along with food consumption data to give estimates of potential dietary exposure. The default scenario, when the recycled PET is intended for general use, is that of an infant weighing 5 kg and consuming every day powdered infant formula reconstituted with 0.75 L of water coming from water bottles manufactured with 100% recycled PET. According to this scenario, it can be derived that the highest concentration of a substance in water that would ensure that the dietary exposure of 0.0025 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 is not exceeded, is 0.017 μg kg^–1 food. The maximum residual content that would comply with this migration limit depends on molecular weight and is in the range 0.09–0.32 mg kg^–1 PET for the typical surrogate contaminants.     

Dietary exposure to lead of adults in Shenzhen city,China

Lead, a ubiquitous heavy metal, can be found in the environment and food. The present study is the first to estimate the lead dietary exposure of Shenzhen adults (≥ 20 years old) in various age–gender subgroups, and to assess the associated health risk. Food samples that represented the Shenzhen people’s dietary pattern were collected and prepared for analysis. Lead was determined in 13 food groups using 276 individual cooked samples by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Dietary exposures were estimated by combining the analytical results with the local food consumption data of Shenzhen adults. The mean and 95th percentile lead exposure of Shenzhen adults were 0.59–0.73 and 0.75–0.94 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1, respectively. In all food groups, the highest lead exposure was from ‘Eggs and their products’ (42.4–51.6% of the total exposure); preserved eggs being the main contributor. The other major contributors to lead exposure of Shenzhen adults were ‘Fish and seafood, and their products’ (14.3–16.7% of the total exposure) and ‘Vegetables and their products’ (15.5–16.2% of the total exposure). The margin of exposure (MOE) approach was used for the risk assessment of lead, and the results showed that the risk was considered to be low in all age–gender groups for Shenzhen adults. However, having considered a number of toxic effects of lead, it is suggested that more efforts should be made to reduce the lead levels in foodstuff for Shenzhen adults.     

Bisphenol A contamination in soft drinks as a risk for children’s health in Italy

Bisphenol A (BPA) was determined in sugary carbonated, non-carbonated and milk-based beverages, through HLPC-fluorescence detection and confirmed by LC-MS/MS, in a selection of brands that are mostly consumed by Italian children. The daily intake was determined through the WHO budget method (BM). BPA was found at detectable levels in 57% of carbonated beverages, in 50% of non-carbonated and in 100% of milk-based beverages. The median concentrations were 1.24 µg l^–1 (range = < LOD–4.98 µg l^–1) in canned carbonated beverages and 0.18 µg l^–1 (< LOD–1.78 µg l^–1) in non-canned carbonated beverages. In non-carbonated beverages, median concentrations were 0.80 µg l^–1 (< LOD–2.79 µg l^–1) and 0.18 µg l^–1 (< LOD–3.58 µg l^–1), respectively, for canned and non-canned beverages; in milk-based products the BPA median concentration was 3.60 µg l^–1 (1.00–17.65 µg l^–1). BPA daily intake from sugary drink consumption in children ranged from 0.008 to 1.765 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1. The median exposure values for the ‘best’ and ‘worst’ cases were 0.16% and 0.47% respectively of the EFSA t-TDI for BPA (4 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1), and 10.59% and 35.30% of the t-TDI when the maximum levels were considered.     

Contamination of food samples from Malaysia with polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans and estimation of human intake

A total of 126 food samples, categorised into three groups (seafood and seafood products, meat and meat products, as well as milk and dairy products) from Malaysia were analysed for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs). The concentration of PCDD/Fs that ranged from 0.16 to 0.25 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ g^?1 fw was found in these samples. According to the food consumption data from the Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) of the World Health Organization (WHO), the dietary exposures to PCDD/F from seafood and seafood products, meat and meat products, as well as milk and dairy products for the general population in Malaysia were 0.064, 0.183 and 0.736 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1, respectively. However, the exposure was higher in seafood and seafood products (0.415 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1) and meat and meat products (0.317 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1) when the data were estimated using the Malaysian food consumption statistics. The lower exposure was observed in dairy products with an estimation of 0.365 pg WHO₀₅-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1. Overall, these dietary exposure estimates were much lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) as recommended by WHO. Thus, it is suggested that the dietary exposure to PCDD/F does not represent a risk for human health in Malaysia.     

Oxytetracycline,tetracycline, chlortetracycline and doxycycline in pasteurised cow’s milk commercialised in Brazil

The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of tetracycline residues in pasteurised cow’s milk using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with UV/VIS detection to determine the exposure of Brazilian’s population to antibiotic residues. One hundred samples collected from the State of Paraná, Brazil, were analysed. Three of these samples were contaminated at the following concentrations: 121.8 µg·kg^?1 for oxytetracycline, 93.5 µg·kg^?1 for tetracycline and 134.6 µg·kg^?1 for chlortetracycline (61.6 µg·kg^?1) and doxycycline (73.0 µg·kg^?1). The median tetracycline residue concentration found in the samples was 42.3 µg·kg^?1, and the estimated daily intake (EDI) was 0.05 µg Kg^?1 bw day^?1 in Brazil. These results demonstrate that the occurrence of tetracycline in Brazilian milk was low (3%) and only for 2% above the maximum residue limit, so the risk to the population from the presence of these residues in milk was low (<1% of the acceptable daily intake).     

Household dietary exposure to aflatoxins from maize and maize products in Kenya

Aflatoxicosis has repeatedly affected Kenyans, particularly in the eastern region, due to consumption of contaminated maize. However, save for the cases of acute toxicity, the levels of sub-lethal exposure have not been adequately assessed. It is believed that this type of exposure does exist even during the seasons when acute toxicity does not occur. This study, therefore, was designed to assess the exposure of households to aflatoxins through consumption of maize and maize products. Twenty samples each of maize kernels, muthokoi and maize meal were randomly sampled from households in Kibwezi District of Makueni County in Eastern Kenya and analysed for aflatoxin contamination. The samples were quantitatively analysed for aflatoxin contamination using HPLC. The uncertainty and variability in dietary exposure was quantitatively modelled in Ms Excel using Monte Carlo simulation in @Risk software. Aflatoxins were found in 45% of maize kernels at between 18 and 480 μg kg^–1, 20% of muthokoi at between 12 and 123 μg kg^–1, and 35% of maize meal at between 6 and 30 μg kg^–1. The mean dietary exposure to aflatoxin in maize kernels was 292 ± 1567 ng kg^?1 body weight day^?1, while the mean dietary exposure to aflatoxin in maize meal and muthokoi were 59 ± 62 and 27 ± 154 ng kg^?1 body weight day^?1 respectively. The results showed that the amount and frequency of consumption of the three foods is the more important contributing factor than the mean aflatoxin concentration levels, to the risk of dietary exposure to aflatoxins.     

Impact of refining the assessment of dietary exposure to cadmium in the European adult population

Exposure assessment constitutes an important step in any risk assessment of potentially harmful substances present in food. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) first assessed dietary exposure to cadmium in Europe using a deterministic framework, resulting in mean values of exposure in the range of health-based guidance values. Since then, the characterisation of foods has been refined to better match occurrence and consumption data, and a new strategy to handle left-censoring in occurrence data was devised. A probabilistic assessment was performed and compared with deterministic estimates, using occurrence values at the European level and consumption data from 14 national dietary surveys. Mean estimates in the probabilistic assessment ranged from 1.38 (95% CI = 1.35–1.44) to 2.08 (1.99–2.23) µg kg^–1 bodyweight (bw) week^–1 across the different surveys, which were less than 10% lower than deterministic (middle bound) mean values that ranged from 1.50 to 2.20 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1. Probabilistic 95th percentile estimates of dietary exposure ranged from 2.65 (2.57–2.72) to 4.99 (4.62–5.38) µg kg^–1 bw week^–1, which were, with the exception of one survey, between 3% and 17% higher than middle-bound deterministic estimates. Overall, the proportion of subjects exceeding the tolerable weekly intake of 2.5 µg kg^–1 bw ranged from 14.8% (13.6–16.0%) to 31.2% (29.7–32.5%) according to the probabilistic assessment. The results of this work indicate that mean values of dietary exposure to cadmium in the European population were of similar magnitude using determinist or probabilistic assessments. For higher exposure levels, probabilistic estimates were almost consistently larger than deterministic counterparts, thus reflecting the impact of using the full distribution of occurrence values to determine exposure levels. It is considered prudent to use probabilistic methodology should exposure estimates be close to or exceeding health-based guidance values.     

Blood,breast milk and urine: potential biomarkers of exposure and estimated daily intake of ochratoxin A: a review

The purposes of this review are to study potential biomarkers of exposure for ochratoxin A (OTA) in biological fluids (blood, urine and breast milk) for the period 2005–14, calculate the estimated daily intake (EDI) of OTA by using database consumption for the Spanish population, and, finally, to correlate OTA levels detected in blood and EDI values calculated from food products. The values of OTA detected in potential biomarkers of exposure for blood, breast milk and urine ranged from 0.15 to 18.0, from 0.002 to 13.1, and from 0.013 to 0.2 ng ml^–1, respectively. The calculated EDI for OTA in plasma ranged from 0.15 to 26 ng kg^–1 bw day^–1, higher than that obtained in urine (0.017–0.4 ng kg^–1 bw day^–1). All these values are correlated with the range of EDI for OTA calculated from food products: 0.0001–25.2 ng kg^–1 bw day^–1.     

Dietary exposure to trace elements and health risk assessment in the region of Valencia,Spain: a total diet study

ABSTRACT

Dietary exposure of the Valencian region population to lead, cadmium, inorganic arsenic (iAs), chromium, copper, tin and methylmercury (meHg) was assessed in a total diet study carried out in the region of Valencia in 2010–11. A total of 8100 food samples were collected and analysed. Occurrence data were combined with consumption data to estimate dietary exposure in adults (> 15 years of age) and young children (6–15 years of age). The estimated intake was calculated by a probabilistic approach. Average intake levels (optimistic scenario) for lead, iAs, chromium and tin were 0.21, 0.08, 1.79 and 1.87 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1 respectively; for Cd and meHg average intake levels were 0.77 and 0.54 µg kg^–1 bw week^?1, respectively, and for Cu, 1.60 mg day^?1. In terms of risk characterisation, the results showed that 2.84% of the adult population may exceed the BMDL₁₀ (benchmark dose lower confidence limit) established for Pb, which is linked to renal effects; whereas 28.01% of the young children population may exceed the BMDL₀₁ related to neurodevelopment effects. In addition, 8.47% of the adult population and 12.32% of young children exceeded the meHg tolerable weekly intake (TWI).     

Concentrations and health hazards of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in selected commercial brands of milk

The concentrations and profiles of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in twenty popular commercial brands of milk in the Nigerian market after saponification with ethanolic KOH and cyclohexane extraction and clean up using a gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. The concentrations of the Σ16 PAHs in these brands of milk ranged from 15.6 to 1,711.8 μg kg^?1. The dominant PAH compounds in these brands of milk were 3-and-4-rings PAHs. The dietary intake of BaP, PAH2, PAH4 and PAH8 were 0–53.9 and 0–369.6 ng kg^?1 bw day^?1 respectively. Using these indicators for occurrence and effects (BaP, PAH2, PAH4 and PAH8) PAHs in food, the margin of exposure were <10,000 in 15–30 % of the brands.     

Dietary exposure to chloropropanols of secondary school students in Hong Kong

This paper reports levels of 3-monochloropropan-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) in a wide range of food items and estimates their dietary exposure for secondary school students in Hong Kong. Dietary exposure to chloropropanols was estimated using local food consumption data obtained from secondary school students in 2000 and the concentrations of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP in food samples taken from the local market. The dietary exposure to 3-MCPD for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.063–0.150 µg kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.152–0.300 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. Both estimates fell below the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 µg kg^?1 bw established by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and amounted to less than 20% of this safety reference value. The dietary exposure to 1,3-DCP for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.003–0.019 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.009–0.040 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. The resulting margins of exposures were of low concern for human health. It could be concluded that both the average and high secondary school student consumers were unlikely to experience major toxicological effects of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP.     

Perchlorate: water and infant formulae contamination in France and risk assessment in infants

Perchlorate ions ClO₄^–, known to inhibit competitively the uptake of iodine by the thyroid, have been detected in drinking water in France as well as in infant formulae. A tolerable daily intake (TDI) has been established at 0.7 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 based on the inhibition of iodine uptake. Due to this mechanism of action, the iodine status could strongly influence the biological effect of perchlorate. Perchlorate concentrations in water and infant formulae were measured and the exposure of children under 6 months of age calculated. It appeared that the TDI could be exceeded in some children. As the iodine status is not optimal within the entire French population, there appears to be a need to clarify the sources of perchlorate ultimately to decrease exposure.     

Dietary acrylamide exposure among Finnish adults and children: the potential effect of reduction measures

A deterministic exposure assessment using the Nusser method that adjusts for within-subject variation and for nuisance effects among Finnish children and adults was carried out. The food consumption data covered 2038 adults (25–74 years old) and 1514 children of 1, 3 and 6 years of age, with the data on foods’ acrylamide content obtained from published Finnish studies. We found that acrylamide exposure was highest among the 3-year-old children (median?=?1.01?µg?kg^?1?bw^?day^?1, 97.5th percentile?=?1.95?µg?kg^?1?bw^?day^?1) and lowest among 65–74-year-old women (median?=?0.31?µg?kg^?1?bw^?day^?1, 97.5th percentile?=?0.69?µg?kg^?1?bw^?day^?1). Among adults, the most important source of acrylamide exposure was coffee, followed by casseroles rich in starch, then rye bread. Among children, the most important sources were casseroles rich in starch and then biscuits and, finally, chips and other fried potatoes. Replacing lightly roasted coffee with dark-roasted, swapping sweet wheat buns for biscuits, and decreasing the acrylamide content of starch-based casseroles and rye bread by 50% would result in a 50% decrease in acrylamide exposure in adults. Among children, substituting boiled potatoes for chips and other friend potatoes and replacing biscuits with sweet wheat buns while lowering the acrylamide content of starch-based casseroles by 50% would lead to acrylamide exposure that is only half of the original exposure. In conclusions, dietary modifications could have a large impact in decreasing acrylamide exposure.     

Dietary exposure to acrylamide from potato crisps to the Spanish population

Potato crisps are one of the food commodities that contribute most to overall dietary human exposure of acrylamide. This investigation has estimated the dietary exposure to acrylamide form potato crisps in the Spanish population. Sampling of potato crisps (n = 36) from 16 different producers were carried out in March 2008. An average level of 740 µg kg^?1 (ranging from 81 to 2622 µg kg^?1; minimum to maximum) and a median of 592 µg kg^?1 were obtained. Acrylamide levels in marketed potato crisps have been significantly reduced (nearly to 50%) compared with a previous sampling performed 4 years earlier. The observed signal value (90th percentile) was 1377 µg kg^?1 with 86% of the samples with acrylamide levels lower than 1000 µg kg^?1. Dietary exposure to acrylamide from potato crisp consumption in the total Spanish population was estimated to be 0.042 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 by using a deterministic approach based on the National consumption database. In a second study, dietary exposure (based on a 3-day food record) was determined to be 0.053 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for the adult population (17–60 years) and 0.142 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for children (7–12 years). The contribution of potato crisps to the estimated dietary acrylamide exposure of the Spanish population is moderate as compared with other European Member States.     

Survey of 11 mycotoxins in wheat flour in Hebei province,China

A survey of 11 mycotoxins in 348 wheat flour samples marketed in Hebei province of China were analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, was carried out. The selected mycotoxins consisted of four aflatoxins (AFs: AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁ and AFG₂) and seven Fusarium toxins, i.e. deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, zearalenone, Fusarenon-X and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside. Results indicated that most of the wheat samples analysed were contaminated with mycotoxins. Wheat was most susceptible to DON (91.4% contamination), with a mean level of 240 μg kg^?1. On average the probable daily intake (PDI, expressed as µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1) of mycotoxins was within the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI, 2.0 µg kg^?1 of body weight day^?1) as set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Nevertheless, exposure assessment revealed that the maximum PDI of mycotoxins was 4.06 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1, which was twice the PMTDI value. Thus, consistent monitoring is recommended, as to keep the contamination level under control.     

Dietary exposure to lead by children and adults in the Jinhu area of China

This paper reports an estimate of the dietary intake of lead by children and adults from the Jinhu area in South-eastern China. A duplicate diet approach was used to collect food samples in November and December 2007. The lead content was measured by furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. Median lead intakes for different groups were as follows: children: 1.65 µg(kg_bw)^?1 day^?1; and adults: 1.10 µg(kg_bw)^?1 day^?1. No exposure exceeded the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) of 25 µg(kg_bw)^?1 week^?1 proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO). However, median and maximum exposure for the children group amounted to 60.8% and 97.2% of the PTWI, respectively, which were higher than those for adults, which were 40.5% and 86.4%, respectively. It was concluded that health risks due to dietary lead intake seem to be high in Jinhu.