More food or better distribution? Reviewing food policy options in developing countries

As most of the undernourished people in the world live in developing countries, achieving food security plays a major role on the daily agenda of policy makers. For achieving food security, there exist various strategies such as supply management, demand management, or better food distribution. This article aims to analyze different scenarios in a developing country context and seeks to provide an overview that could be the most suitable approach to achieve food security. In this context, not only producing more food is considered but also the environmental and social implications that come along with a higher production. Some of the existing options for achieving food security seem not to be appropriate anymore; for instance, cultivation expansion, as this can only be achieved at high social and environmental costs. Other options, such as sustainable intensification or waste management, seem to be more appropriate. The article concludes that there exists no stand-alone solution to the food security problem. Instead, an integrated approach that combines different options might rather be the key to sustainable food security.     

Antioxidants in food: mere myth or magic medicine?

The powerful action of antioxidants in preventing premature lipid oxidation in food suggests that the same compounds, when consumed with the daily diet, could unfold antioxidative/anti-aging effects in the human body. Therefore, it has been hypothesized that antioxidants are helpful in preventing various diseases. More detailed chemical and physiological examination of antioxidants shows, however, that the extrapolation of in vitro data to in vivo behavior may be misleading. Indeed, such a procedure fails to take into account the mismatch between most in vitro models (e.g., cell cultures) and in vivo systems. For example, the physiological relevance of pro-oxidative and other physiological activities of antioxidants have been largely underestimated. Actually, contrary to the antioxidant hypothesis, clinical trials testing the health benefits of dietary antioxidants have reported rather mixed or negative results. Many clinical studies have not taken into account the nutrikinetic and nutridynamic nature of antioxidants. Further, oxidative stress is not only an inevitable event in a healthy human cell, but responsible for the functioning of vital metabolic processes, such as insulin signaling and erythropoietin production. In the light of recent physiological studies it appears more advisable to maintain the delicate redox balance of the cell than to interfere with the antioxidant homeostasis by a non-physiological, excessive exogenous supply of antioxidants in healthy humans.     

Multiclass method for fast determination of veterinary drug residues in baby food by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

A simple and rapid multiresidue method for the determination of different veterinary drug residues in meat-based baby food (MBF) and powdered milk-based infant formulae (PMIF) has been developed. The method involves an extraction procedure based on buffered QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe) methodology, without any further clean-up step, followed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). The method has been validated in two baby food matrices (MBF and PMIF) at three different concentration levels, obtaining suitable recoveries and precision (inter and intra-day precision) values. Quantification was carried out using matrix-matched standard calibration. Furthermore, the decision limit (CCα) and the decision capability (CCβ) were evaluated, ranging from 0.5 to 16.2 μg/kg and from 1.2 to 22.4 μg/kg, respectively. Finally, the method was applied to the analysis of several kinds of baby food samples and traces of some veterinary drugs were detected.     

Winter wheat quantity or quality? Assessing food security in Uzbekistan

Winter wheat is the most important cereal in Uzbekistan. Although the processing industry recognizes the low quality of local wheat, the present land use policy prioritizes production quantity, and wheat of better quality is imported to improve local flour. Yet, with increasing world market prices, Uzbekistan has to decide whether to continue allocating considerable resources for imports or to start investing in local quality improvements. This study therefore analyzed wheat production in the Khorezm region of Uzbekistan by (a) assessing the economic feasibility of local production vs. imports; and by (b) evaluating the current N-fertilizer management at field level in order to identify options for improving quality. Demand for wheat in the region currently falls short of supply by 79,000 t but under favorable world market prices, funds for importing additional wheat could be covered by cotton sales. Prices above $148 USD t⁻¹ support the present land use policy to cultivate wheat but the baking quality of the crop is low. Higher N rates and/or an additional application of N at anthesis significantly increased grain quality. Additional costs for changes in N management, however, are currently not compensated by the price premiums at the State mills. Thus, in the absence of price incentives, it is unrealistic to expect producers to maximize quality production. Consequently, administrators must give quality greater attention by creating incentives through price differentials for higher quality, and encouraging awareness programs on wheat quality and improved on-field N management.     

Multi-residue method for the confirmation of four avermectin residues in food products of animal origin by ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

A confirmatory method was developed for the rapid determination of abamectin, ivermectin, doramectin and eprinomectin residues in various food products of animal origin, such as pork muscle, pork liver, fish and milk. Samples were homogenized, extracted and de-proteinized by acetonitrile, cleaned via two-step cleaning procedure using Bond Elut C₁₈ SPE columns and then alumina-N cartridges. All the four avermectin residues in different animal-food products were simultaneously separated and determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–ESI–MS/MS) within 3.5?min. Data acquisition under positive ESI–MS/MS was performed by applying multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) for both identification and quantification, and mass spectrometric conditions were optimized to increase selectivity and sensitivity. The matrix-matched calibration curves for different matrices, such as pork muscle, pork liver, fish and milk, were constructed and the interference effect of different sample matrices on the ionization was effectively eliminated. The UPLC–MS/MS method was validated with satisfactory linearity, recovery, precision and stability. Matrix-matched calibration curves of abamectin, ivermectin, doramectin and eprinomectin in four different matrices were linear (r^{2 ?}≥?0.990, goodness-of-fit coefficients ≤12.8%) in the range 2.5–200?µg?kg^?1. The limits of detection and quantification for the four avermectins were in the range 0.05–0.68 and 0.17–2.27?µg?kg^?1, respectively. Recoveries were 62.4–104.5% with good intra- and inter-day precision. The method was rapid, sensitive and reliable, and can be applied to the quantitative analysis of avermectin residues in different animal-food products.     

Visible and near-infrared spectroscopic analysis of raw milk for cow health monitoring: reflectance or transmittance?

The composition of produced milk has great value for the dairy farmer. It determines the economic value of the milk and provides valuable information about the metabolism of the corresponding cow. Therefore, online measurement of milk components during milking 2 or more times per day would provide knowledge about the current health and nutritional status of each cow individually. This information provides a solid basis for optimizing cow management. The potential of visible and near-infrared (Vis/NIR) spectroscopy for predicting the fat, crude protein, lactose, and urea content of raw milk online during milking was, therefore, investigated in this study. Two measurement modes (reflectance and transmittance) and different wavelength ranges for Vis/NIR spectroscopy were evaluated and their ability to measure the milk composition online was compared. The Vis/NIR reflectance measurements allowed for very accurate monitoring of the fat and crude protein content in raw milk (R² > 0.95), but resulted in poor lactose predictions (R² < 0.75). In contrast, Vis/NIR transmittance spectra of the milk samples gave accurate fat and crude protein predictions (R² > 0.90) and useful lactose predictions (R² = 0.88). Neither Vis/NIR reflectance nor transmittance spectroscopy lead to an acceptable prediction of the milk urea content. Transmittance spectroscopy can thus be used to predict the 3 major milk components, but with lower accuracy for fat and crude protein than the reflectance mode. Moreover, the small sample thickness (1 mm) required for NIR transmittance measurement considerably complicates its online use.     

Acceptance of insects as food in Germany: Is it about sensation seeking,sustainability consciousness,or food disgust?

This study examines the acceptance of insect-based foods by consumers in Germany. The nationwide online survey (N = 516) focused on which factors have the greatest influence on the willingness to consume an insect burger and buffalo worms. In addition to sociodemographic factors, meat consumption and the “classical” variables in the field of entomophagy (familiarity, previous insect consumption, food technology neophobia and food neophobia), the study focuses in particular on the previously unconsidered variables sensation seeking, sustainability consciousness and food disgust. A total of 41.9% of the participants were willing to consume an insect burger. In contrast, only 15.9% of the participants were willing to consume the buffalo worms – a principal ingredient of the insect burger. Hierarchical multiple regressions showed that food disgust was the most important predictor for the acceptance of edible insects, followed by previous insect consumption, food neophobia, gender, sensation seeking and food technology neophobia. The high influence of food disgust shows that not only the explicit disgust for insects is decisive for the consumer readiness of insect-based products, but also the domain specific disgust for food. Despite the strong sustainability awareness of our participants, and contrary to our expectations, sustainability consciousness did not prove to be a significant predictor for the willingness to consume insects. Implications for marketing strategies and educational interventions will be discussed.     

Diagonal or vertical? An empirical study of the impact of food brand logo orientation on consumers’ food perception and food attitude

This study explores the role of food brand logo orientation on consumers’ perceptions and attitudes regarding food products through four studies. Study 1 examines the effects of food brand logo orientation (diagonal vs. vertical) on consumer perceptions of food tastiness and risk. The findings suggest that diagonal (vs. vertical) food brand logos result in higher (lower) taste and risk perception in branded food. Study 2 reveals the underlying mechanisms of this effect by introducing perceived movement as a mediator between logo orientation and food perception. The results support the inference that movement is an underlying mechanism for the effect. Study 3 examines the effects of brand logo orientation and regulatory focus on consumer attitudes regarding branded food. The results suggest that for consumers with a promotion focus, a diagonal (vs. vertical) oriented logo leads to a more favorable attitude toward the food. For consumers with a prevention focus, a diagonal (vs. vertical) oriented logo leads to a less favorable attitude toward the food. Study 4 establishes validity of the above findings regarding native English speakers.     

Shocks in economic growth = shocking effects for food security?

The recent economic and financial turmoil raises the question on how global economic growth affects agricultural commodity markets and, hence, food security. To address this question, this paper assesses the potential impacts of faster economic growth in developed and emerging economies on the one hand and a replication of the recent economic downturn on the other hand. The empirical analysis uses AGLINK-COSIMO, a recursive-dynamic, partial equilibrium, supply–demand model. Simulation results demonstrate that higher economic growth influences demand more than supply, resulting in higher world market prices for agricultural commodities. Emerging economies tend to import more and to stock less in order to cover their demand needs, while the rest of the world increases its exports. The modelled faster economic growth also helps developing countries to improve their trade balance, but does not necessarily give them the incentive to address domestic food security concerns by boosting domestic consumption. A replication of an economic downturn leads to lower world prices, and while the magnitude of the effects decreases over time, markets do not regain their baseline levels within a 5-year period. Due to the lower world market prices, developing countries import more and increase their per capita food calorie intake. However, as developing countries become more import dependent, this also implies that they become more vulnerable to disruptions in agricultural world markets.     

Developments in food processing and increasing gaps in consumers competence of food handling––the challenge for nutrition policy in Europe

Human evolution is accompanied by innovations in food processing. The results are remarkable: there is food security, as there is surplus on cheap, safe and high quality food. Despite this situation nutritional studies reveal that there are still nutritional problems in the world. Food security is only a precondition but no guarantee for nutrition security.The causes of nutritional problems are complex. In industrialised societies the importance of the last links of the food chain, being the competence of consumers regarding food and nutrition, is ignored. Whereas the global knowledge on food processing is increasing continuously, a reverse trend regarding consumer competence can be observed. The consequences of these trends have to be observed and studied. People with less food and nutrition competence are susceptible to disorientation and misguided behaviour. It is likely that the trend accelerates since the traditional ways to learn food and nutrition competence are diminishing; even in the case of food professionals, like cooks or bakers, there is clear evidence of lack of practical experiences.Nutrition and food policy has to focus on this gap. The most important nutritional problems are no longer those of food quality, but related to consumer behaviour. Today’s consumers need high qualification to use all the opportunities to manage the everyday tasks. Without fostering such training (not only for the general population, but also for food professionals) we in Europe are in danger of becoming a food illiterate population.     

State of the art in the validation of screening methods for the control of antibiotic residues: is there a need for further development?

ABSTRACT

Screening methods are used as a first-line approach to detect the presence of antibiotic residues in food of animal origin. The validation process guarantees that the method is fit-for-purpose, suited to regulatory requirements, and provides evidence of its performance. This article is focused on intra-laboratory validation. The first step in validation is characterisation of performance, and the second step is the validation itself with regard to pre-established criteria. The validation approaches can be absolute (a single method) or relative (comparison of methods), overall (combination of several characteristics in one) or criterion-by-criterion. Various approaches to validation, in the form of regulations, guidelines or standards, are presented and discussed to draw conclusions on their potential application for different residue screening methods, and to determine whether or not they reach the same conclusions. The approach by comparison of methods is not suitable for screening methods for antibiotic residues. The overall approaches, such as probability of detection (POD) and accuracy profile, are increasingly used in other fields of application. They may be of interest for screening methods for antibiotic residues. Finally, the criterion-by-criterion approach (Decision 2002/657/EC and of European guideline for the validation of screening methods), usually applied to the screening methods for antibiotic residues, introduced a major characteristic and an improvement in the validation, i.e. the detection capability (CCβ).

In conclusion, screening methods are constantly evolving, thanks to the development of new biosensors or liquid chromatography coupled to tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods. There have been clear changes in validation approaches these last 20 years. Continued progress is required and perspectives for future development of guidelines, regulations and standards for validation are presented here.     

Have changes to meat and poultry food safety regulation in Australia affected the prevalence of Salmonella or of salmonellosis?

During the 1990s, there was radical change in regulation of meat and poultry hygiene in Australia, and Australian Standards were developed for each sector of the meat industry. Systems for industry/government co-regulation and company-employed meat inspection were introduced based on company HACCP programs approved and audited by the Controlling Authority. However, in the 5 years since regulatory changes took full effect, rates of salmonellosis have not decreased (surveillance and reporting systems have remained unchanged). Using statistics gathered by the National Enteric Pathogens Surveillance Scheme, an attempt was made to link Salmonella serovars isolated from meat and poultry with those causing salmonellosis. Two periods were studied, 1993/1994, before regulations were introduced, and 2000/2001, when regulations should be having an effect. For red meat, the same serovars were prominent among the top 10 isolates both before and after regulation, and there was little linkage with salmonelloses. For poultry, frequently isolated serovars differed pre- and post-regulation, however, in both periods there was some linkage between serovars isolated from poultry and those causing salmonelloses. Using published and unpublished survey data, it was concluded that there had been improvements in microbiological quality of red meat and poultry over the same timeframe as regulatory changes. That these improvements apparently have not carried through to reduced case-rates for salmonellosis may be due to numerous causes, including lack of control in the food processing, food service and home sectors. The present paper illustrates difficulties faced by governments in measuring public health outcomes of changes to food hygiene regulation.     

Emulsion design for the delivery of β-carotene in complex food systems

β-Carotene has been widely investigated both in the industry and academia, due to its unique bioactive attributes as an antioxidant and pro-vitamin A. Many attempts were made to design delivery systems for β-carotene to improve its dispersant state and chemical stability, and finally to enhance the functionality. Different types of oil-in-water emulsions were proved to be effective delivery systems for lipophilic bioactive ingredients, and intensive studies were performed on β-carotene emulsions in the last decade. Emulsions are thermodynamically unstable, and emulsions with intact structures are preferable in delivering β-carotene during processing and storage. β-Carotene in emulsions with smaller particle size has poor stability, and protein-type emulsifiers and additional antioxidants are effective in protecting β-carotene from degradation. Recent development in the design of protein-polyphenol conjugates has provided a novel approach to improve the stability of β-carotene emulsions. When β-carotene is consumed, its bioaccessibility is highly influenced by the digestion of lipids, and β-carotene in smaller oil droplets containing long-chain fatty acids has a higher bioaccessibility. In order to better deliver β-carotene in complex food products, some novel emulsions with tailor-made structures have been developed, e.g., multilayer emulsions, solid lipid particles, Pickering emulsions. This review summarizes the updated understanding of emulsion-based delivery systems for β-carotene, and how emulsions can be better designed to fulfill the benefits of β-carotene in functional foods.     

Development and characterization of a prototype of a lactic acid–based time–temperature indicator for monitoring food product quality

Temperature is a crucial factor affecting the quality and safety of food products during both distribution and storage. The difficulty in controlling and monitoring the temperature history of food products makes it difficult to precisely predict shelf life. Time–temperature indicators (TTIs) provide a visual summary of a product’s accumulated chill-chain history, recording the effects of both time and temperature. Attempts have been made to develop a prototype of a time–temperature indicator based on the diffusion of lactic acid, which is temperature-dependent. Four lactic acid-based TTIs were made in different substrate concentrations. Color changes associated with the diffusion of lactic acid were monitored. In the vapor diffusion of lactic acid, an irreversible color change of a chemical chromatic indicator (from green to red) clearly and progressively occurred due to the pH reduction. The temperature dependence of these TTIs kinetics was characterized isothermally in the range of 4–45 °C, yielding activation energy (E_a) of, approximately, 50 kJ mol⁻¹. The mathematical models of each TTI were established according to the relationships between color changes and time and temperature. The differences between the E_a values of the TTIs and the E_a associated with food quality losses – including enzymatic loss, hydrolysis, lipid oxidation, nutrient loss and microbial growth – were less than 40 kJ mol⁻¹, and therefore these TTIs could be considered as good candidates to monitor food quality losses. Although these TTIs do not cover the whole range of food quality losses, they could be applied to show the time–temperature history of some foods, especially fruits and vegetables, and to indicate food quality associated with time–temperature exposure.     

Analysis of free fatty acids in food substrates and in the dust and frass of stored-product pests: Potential for species discrimination?

The larger grain borer, Prostephanus truncatus, is a serious beetle pest that tunnels extensively to produce large quantities of dust and frass. The natural enemy Teretrius nigrescens is an important biological control beetle which is known to exploit at close-range solvent-extractable chemical cues in the dust and frass. The objective of the current study was to analyse quantitatively and qualitatively, the free fatty acid mixtures in different food-substrate materials both before and after insect attack by a range of stored-product pests in order to ascertain whether differences in these mixtures could explain the T. nigrescens selectivity to P. truncatus dust/frass over that of other species irrespective of food substrate. By TLC, GC and GC-MS we found triglyceride and five free fatty acids were the most abundant chemicals in dust/frass (palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0), oleic acid (C18:1), linoleic acid (C18:2) and linolenic acid (C18:3)). In maize flour, Sitophilus species did not significantly change free fatty acid concentrations whereas with P. truncatus, Rhyzopertha dominica and Dinoderus minutus there were 4-6-fold increases, and, for Tribolium species there were over 20-fold increases. These differences provide interesting insights to tunnelling/feeding habits and are correlated with known feeding preferences within grain. Principal component analysis (PCA) demonstrated that free fatty acid ratios in dust/frass of different species are most linked to the food substrate and confer little discriminatory information that could be used to distinguish between the different species. Although increases in free fatty acid concentrations are good indicators of pest infestation and this may contribute behaviourally in an additive or synergistic way, we conclude that other chemical(s) are present and are key to T. nigrescens recognition of P. truncatus on different substrates.