Dietary intake of dioxins,furans and dioxin-like PCBs in Austria

Human exposure to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like PCBs (dl-PCBs) should be assessed regularly. In order to evaluate the contamination levels in various food products on the Austrian market and to assess the dietary exposure of the Austrian population for the first time, a national monitoring programme was conducted from 2005 to 2011. The 235 food products comprised meat, poultry, game and offal, fish and fish products, milk and dairy products, eggs, animal fats and vegetable oils. To estimate the dietary intakes of PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs, mean concentrations in food were combined with the respective food consumption data from the Austrian food consumption survey. Estimated dietary intakes were expressed as toxic equivalents (WHO-TEQs 1998). The mean intakes for PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs were estimated as 0.77, 0.75 and 0.61 pg WHO-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1 for children, women and men, respectively. The main contributors to total intake were milk and dairy products followed by fish and fish products for children and women, and meat, poultry, game and offal for men (65% and 15% for children, 67% and 14% for women, and 63% and 19% for men, respectively). Comparison of the estimated dietary intakes with the toxicological reference values shows that both children and adults are well below those values.     

Exposure to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) through the consumption of prepared meals in Italy

Diet is a relevant source of exposure to environmental pollutants. Dietary intake of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) by the Italian population was assessed through a duplicate diet study on prepared meals. Baby food composite representative of the diet of toddlers aged 9–12 months and school canteen servings from four towns in Italy representing the diet of children aged 4–9 years were collected on a 5-day basis. Similarly, 5-day lunches from an office canteen, 7-day lunches from a hotel-school, three fast food meals, and eight duplicate 1-day meals of individuals (one vegetarian) were selected to represent the diet of adults aged above 18 years. Servings from each diet were then pooled to form a composite and analysed. Dietary intake was estimated from the resulting contaminant levels in composites combined with age-related food consumption data from national survey. The mean upper bound (UB) intakes for cumulative PCDDs, PCDFs, and DL-PCBs were 0.67, 0.63–0.92, and 0.27–0.63 pg WHO₂₀₀₅-TE kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1 for toddlers, children and adults, respectively. BDE-47 (UB) ng kg^?1 bw day^?1 estimates were 2.75 in toddlers, 0.08–0.16 in children and 0.03–0.09 in adults. Similarly, for BDE-99 higher UB intakes (ng kg^?1 bw day^?1) resulted in toddlers (1.26), than those in children (0.06–0.08) and adults (0.03–0.10), respectively. The above estimates fall below the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) (14 WHO₂₀₀₅-TE kg^?1 bw day^?1) established by the European Union Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) for PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs. The margin of exposure (MOE = 3) of toddlers to BDE-99 clearly indicates this age group as target for a risk-oriented approach. This study is proposed as a first cost-effective screening in PCDD, PCDF, DL-PCB and PBDE intake assessment, with a focus also on time trends.     

Dietary exposure and risk assessment to lead of the population of Jiangsu province,China

The paper’s main purpose is to estimate the dietary exposure to lead for the inhabitants of Jiangsu province, China. Lead concentration data were obtained from the national food contamination monitoring programme during 2007–10. Food samples (n = 2077) were collected from 23 food categories in Jiangsu province. Consumption data were derived from Chinese national nutrition and health survey in 2002, which included 3938 inhabitants from 1451 households in Jiangsu province. Concentration data were combined with consumption data to estimate the dietary intake for the inhabitants of 2–6, 7–17 and 18–80 years, respectively. The β-binomial–normal (BBN) model was used to estimate the long-term intake for the population in Jiangsu province. The distribution of individual margin of exposure (IMoE) was introduced to assess the health effect. Uncertainty of IMoE was quantified by Monte Carlo and bootstrap methods. The mean levels of dietary exposure to lead were estimated at 3.019 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for children aged 2–6 years, 2.104 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for teenagers aged 7–17 years, and 1.601 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for adults aged 18–80 years. The mean intakes for the urban and rural populations were 1.494 and 1.822 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, respectively. From the 25th to 99.9th percentiles, IMoE was 0.125–2.057 for 2–6 years and 0.473–7.998 for 18–80 years, respectively. The distribution of IMoE could indicate a public health concern on lead for the Chinese population in Jiangsu. Control measures should be taken to reduce lead exposure in Jiangsu province.     

Dietary exposure of secondary school students in Hong Kong to polybrominated diphenyl ethers from foods of animal origin

This paper reports levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in a wide range of foods of animal origin and estimates their dietary exposure for secondary school students in Hong Kong, China. Dietary exposure to PBDEs was estimated using local food consumption data obtained from secondary school students in 2000 and the concentrations of PBDEs in food samples taken from local market in 2008. The PBDE levels on a fresh weight basis for fish ranged from 13 to 6600 pg g^?1, for seafood and seafood products ranged from 15 to 1200 pg g^?1, for meat and meat products ranged from 23 to 3500 pg g^?1, for poultry ranged from 68 to 670 pg g^?1, for eggs ranged from 280 to 800 pg g^?1, and for dairy products ranged from 12 to 480 pg g^?1. The dietary exposures of secondary school students for the average and high consumers were estimated to be 2.6 and 6.4 ng kg^?1 body weight day^?1, respectively. According to the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), for the more toxic PBDE congeners, adverse effects would be unlikely to occur in laboratory animals at doses of less than approximately 100 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1. The resulting margins of exposures (38,000 for average consumers and 16,000 for high consumers) showed that the estimated dietary exposures of secondary school students were far below any adverse effect dose observed in laboratory animals and were therefore of low concern for human health.     

Estimate of dietary exposure to sulphites in child and adult populations in the Basque Country

Sulphites are widely used as a preservative and antioxidant additive in food. The aim of this study was to assess dietary sulphite intake in adults aged 35–65 years and in children aged 4–18 years living in the Basque Country, northern Spain. We determined sulphite concentrations in 909 samples covering 16 food types. The maximum permitted levels were exceeded in 17% of samples. Making recommended assumptions for non-quantifiable results, estimates of mean lower and upper bounds were calculated for sulphite concentrations in each food type. These sulphite data were combined with consumption data derived from 8417 adults from the European Prospective Investigation in Cancer and Nutrition cohort in Gipuzkoa, recruited in 1992–1995 using a diet history method, and 1055 children from the Basque Country Nutrition Children Survey, conducted in 2004–2005 using two 24-h recall questionnaires to assess diet. The results were compared with the acceptable daily intake (ADI) proposed by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The mean dietary exposure to sulphites was 0.08 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1, only 11% of the ADI in the overall group of children (4–18 years old), but the acceptable intake was exceeded by 4% of 4–6 year olds. For the adults (35–65 years old), the mean dietary exposure was 0.31 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1, 45% of the ADI, but the acceptable intake was exceeded in 14.6% of cases. The major contributing foods were minced meat and other meat products for children and wine for adults.     

Dietary exposures to eight metallic contaminants of the Hong Kong adult population from a total diet study

Dietary exposures to eight metallic contaminants, aluminium (Al), antimony (Sb), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), methylmercury (MeHg), nickel (Ni), tin (Sn) and vanadium (V), of the Hong Kong adult population were estimated using the total diet study (TDS) approach. The estimated mean exposures of Al (0.60 mg kg^–1 bw week^–1), Sb (0.016–0.039 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1), Cd (8.3 µg kg^–1 bw month^–1), Pb (0.21 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1), MeHg (0.74 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1), Ni (3.1 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1), Sn (0.029–0.031 mg kg^–1 bw week^–1) and V (0.13 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1) were well below the relevant health-based guidance values (HBGVs) where available. However, dietary exposures to MeHg of women aged 20–49 years (child-bearing age) accounted for 150% of the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) and to Al and Cd of some high consumers were found exceeding or approaching the HBGVs. The major food contributors of MeHg were fish and seafood (90%), of Al were non-alcoholic beverages including tea (33%), and of Cd were vegetables (36%). MeHg exposure during pregnancy was a public health concern in Hong Kong due to potential health risks to the foetus. Results suggest that there is a need to continue monitoring the exposures to metallic contaminants, especially Al, Cd and MeHg, of the Hong Kong population.     

Dietary exposure and risk assessment of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins,polychlorinated dibenzofurans and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls of the population in the Region of Valencia (Spain)

Dietary exposure of the Valencia Region population to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and PCBs was assessed in the Region of Valencia in 2010–2011. A total of 7700 food samples were collected. Occurrence data were combined with consumption data to estimate dietary exposure in adults (>15 years of age) and young people (6–15 years of age). The estimated intake was calculated by a probabilistic approach. Average intake levels (upper-bound scenario) were 1.58 and 2.76 pg toxic equivalent (TEQ) kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1 for adults and young people, respectively. These average intakes are within range of the tolerable daily intake of 1–4 pg WHO-TEQ kg^?1 bw day^?1 recommended by WHO, and slightly above the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of 14 pg TEQ kg^?1 bw week^?1 and the Provisional tolerable monthly intake of 70 pg TEQ kg^?1 bw month^?1 set by the Scientific Committee on Food and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food, respectively. These results show that the contamination levels in food and therefore the exposure of the general population to PCDD/Fs and PCBs have declined in this region and therefore show the efficiency of the European risk-management measures. In terms of risk characterisation, the results showed that, under the upper-bound scenario, 22% of the adult and 58% of the young people population could exceed the TWI.     

Widespread occurrence of perchlorate in water,foodstuffs and human urine collected from Kuwait and its contribution to human exposure

Perchlorate is a thyroid hormone-disrupting compound and is reported to occur widely in the environment. Little is known on human exposure to perchlorate in Kuwait. In this study, 218 water samples, 618 commonly consumed foodstuffs and 532 urine samples collected from Kuwait were analysed to assess the exposure of the Kuwaiti population to perchlorate. For the estimation of daily intake of perchlorate, food consumption rates were obtained from the National Nutrition Survey in the State of Kuwait (NNSSK). The results showed that leafy vegetables accounted for a major share of perchlorate exposure among the Kuwaiti population at 0.062 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 (36.2%), followed by fruits at 0.026 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 (15.3%) and non-leafy vegetables at 0.017 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 (10.1%). The urinary perchlorate geometric mean (GM) concentrations ranged from 8.51 to 17.1 µg l^–1 for the five age groups, which were higher than those reported in other countries. The estimated urinary perchlorate exposure for the Kuwaiti general population was 0.42 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1, which was higher than that reported for the United States. The dietary intake of perchlorate for the Kuwaiti population ranged from 0.14 to 0.67 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 for the five age groups, with a mean total daily intake of 0.17 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 for the general population. The highest estimated dietary mean daily intake of perchlorate (0.67 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1) was found for children at 3–5 years. The estimated dietary perchlorate exposure in Kuwait is higher than the recommended mean reference dose (RfD) but lower than that of provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA).     

Assessment of mercury and cadmium via seafood consumption in Italy: estimated dietary intake (EWI) and target hazard quotient (THQ)

Mercury (Hg) and cadmium (Cd) were quantified in fish, cephalopods and crustaceans from Italian supermarkets. Sample compliance with European dietary standards as well as human health risks according to provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) and the methodology of target hazard quotient (THQ) were evaluated. Both element levels were under European legal limits, except for some fish having Hg and Cd contents exceeding or equal to critical values. Estimated weekly intakes (Hg: fish = 0.07–1.44 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; cephalopods = 0.05–0.15 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; crustaceans = 0.04–0.08 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; and Cd: fish = 0.04–0.32 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; cephalopods = 0.07–0.27 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; crustaceans = 0.05–0.11 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1) as well as THQ < 1 were within safe limits. Although there seems to be no important risks associated with seafood consumption, Hg exposure was in some cases close to safety margins and thus levels of this metal should be under frequent surveillance.     

Dioxin and dl-PCB exposure from food: the German LExUKon project

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin and -furan (PCDD/F) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyl (dl-PCB) exposure from food were estimated using new food consumption data from the recent German food consumption survey (Nationale Verzehrsstudie II – NVS II). Based on these comprehensive data, information on the consumption of 545 individual food items by the German population was derived. Concentrations of dioxin-like compounds in food were compiled from the German Food Monitoring Programme (GFMP), the German Dioxin Database, other German authority programmes, European countries’ authority programmes and the published literature covering the years 2000–2010. By multiplication with consumption data, estimates of intake from food were determined. The main food groups contributing most to the intake of the general public are dairy products (including milk), meat and fish (including seafood), followed – due to high consumption – by the main group vegetables. The combined intake of PCDD/F and dl-PCB (as toxic equivalents – TEQ) from food was estimated to be 2.11/1.53 pg kg^–1 bw and day and 3.56/2.85 pg kg^–1 bw and day (upper/lower bound) for average and high-end consumers, respectively. The estimated intake of average consumers is close to a reference value derived by the Scientific Committee on Food in 2001. Uncertainties in these estimates pertain to the influence of values below the limit of quantification (upper/lower bound ratio) and some foods not considered due to the lack of contamination data.     

Formaldehyde in cultivated mushrooms: a negligible risk for the consumer

Following the detection of formaldehyde in cultivated mushrooms, an evaluation was carried out to assess whether its presence in food poses a risk to public health. Formaldehyde, a carcinogenic chemical, has a broad range of industrial applications and, hence, exposure to formaldehyde is ubiquitous through diverse consumer goods, food, the air, etc. The observed levels of formaldehyde in mushrooms are lower than the levels reported for vegetables, fruit, meat, fish and dairy products. On the basis of available data, a rough estimate of the dietary exposure to formaldehyde was performed. The exposure through the consumption of cultivated mushrooms (approximately 0.19 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 on average, consumers only) appeared to be small compared with the total dietary intake of formaldehyde (approximately 99.0 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1, total population). Based on comparison with toxicological safety limits for chronic exposure and given that formaldehyde is carcinogenic only through inhalation and not by ingestion, it can be concluded that the dietary exposure to formaldehyde is not a cause for concern.     

Blood,breast milk and urine: potential biomarkers of exposure and estimated daily intake of ochratoxin A: a review

The purposes of this review are to study potential biomarkers of exposure for ochratoxin A (OTA) in biological fluids (blood, urine and breast milk) for the period 2005–14, calculate the estimated daily intake (EDI) of OTA by using database consumption for the Spanish population, and, finally, to correlate OTA levels detected in blood and EDI values calculated from food products. The values of OTA detected in potential biomarkers of exposure for blood, breast milk and urine ranged from 0.15 to 18.0, from 0.002 to 13.1, and from 0.013 to 0.2 ng ml^–1, respectively. The calculated EDI for OTA in plasma ranged from 0.15 to 26 ng kg^–1 bw day^–1, higher than that obtained in urine (0.017–0.4 ng kg^–1 bw day^–1). All these values are correlated with the range of EDI for OTA calculated from food products: 0.0001–25.2 ng kg^–1 bw day^–1.     

Dietary exposure of the Hong Kong adult population to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): results of the first Hong Kong Total Diet Study

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are a group of industrial chemicals that are persistent and can bioaccumulate. In the first Hong Kong Total Diet Study, the dietary exposure of Hong Kong adults to PBDEs was estimated to assess the associated health risks. Food samples, which represented the Hong Kong people’s diet, were collected and prepared in table-ready form for analysis. Concentrations of PBDEs were determined in 142 composite samples. The dietary exposures were estimated by combining the analytical results with the local food consumption data of the adults. The mean and 95th percentile of dietary PBDEs exposures of the Hong Kong people were 1.34 and 2.90 ng kg^?1 body weight day^?1, respectively. The main dietary source of PBDEs was “fish and seafood and their products”, which contributed 27.3% of the total exposure, followed by “meat, poultry and game and their products” (20.7%), “cereals and their products” (15.9%), and “fats and oils” (15.9%). The large margins of exposure (MOE) (>2.5) calculated following the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approach for four important congeners, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-153 and BDE-209, indicate that the estimated dietary exposures are unlikely to be a significant health concern.     

Safety evaluation of mechanical recycling processes used to produce polyethylene terephthalate (PET) intended for food contact applications

The development of a scheme for the safety evaluation of mechanical recycling processes for polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is described. The starting point is the adoption of a threshold of toxicological concern such that migration from the recycled PET should not give rise to a dietary exposure exceeding 0.0025 μg kg^–1 bw day^–1, the exposure threshold value for chemicals with structural alerts raising concern for potential genotoxicity, below which the risk to human health would be negligible. It is practically impossible to test every batch of incoming recovered PET and every production batch of recycled PET for all the different chemical contaminants that could theoretically arise. Consequently, the principle of the safety evaluation is to measure the cleaning efficiency of a recycling process by using a challenge test with surrogate contaminants. This cleaning efficiency is then applied to reduce a reference contamination level for post-consumer PET, conservatively set at 3 mg kg^–1 PET for a contaminant resulting from possible misuse by consumers. The resulting residual concentration of each contaminant in recycled PET is used in conservative migration models to calculate migration levels, which are then used along with food consumption data to give estimates of potential dietary exposure. The default scenario, when the recycled PET is intended for general use, is that of an infant weighing 5 kg and consuming every day powdered infant formula reconstituted with 0.75 L of water coming from water bottles manufactured with 100% recycled PET. According to this scenario, it can be derived that the highest concentration of a substance in water that would ensure that the dietary exposure of 0.0025 µg kg^–1 bw day^–1 is not exceeded, is 0.017 μg kg^–1 food. The maximum residual content that would comply with this migration limit depends on molecular weight and is in the range 0.09–0.32 mg kg^–1 PET for the typical surrogate contaminants.     

Concentrations and health hazards of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in selected commercial brands of milk

The concentrations and profiles of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in twenty popular commercial brands of milk in the Nigerian market after saponification with ethanolic KOH and cyclohexane extraction and clean up using a gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. The concentrations of the Σ16 PAHs in these brands of milk ranged from 15.6 to 1,711.8 μg kg^?1. The dominant PAH compounds in these brands of milk were 3-and-4-rings PAHs. The dietary intake of BaP, PAH2, PAH4 and PAH8 were 0–53.9 and 0–369.6 ng kg^?1 bw day^?1 respectively. Using these indicators for occurrence and effects (BaP, PAH2, PAH4 and PAH8) PAHs in food, the margin of exposure were <10,000 in 15–30 % of the brands.     

Risk assessment of dietary exposure to tryptamine for the Austrian population

ABSTRACT

Tryptamine acts as a neuromodulator and vasoactive agent in the human body. Dose–response data on dietary tryptamine are scarce and neither a toxicological threshold value nor tolerable levels in foods have been established so far. This paper reviews dose–response characteristics and toxicological effects of tryptamine as well as tryptamine contents in food, estimates dietary exposure of Austrian consumers, and calculates risk-based maximum tolerable limits for food categories. A dose without effect of 8 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 was derived from literature data. Dietary exposure via fish/seafood, beer, cheese and meat products was estimated for Austrian schoolchildren, female and male consumers, based on 543 food samples analysed in Austria 2010–15 and on food consumption data from 2008. Even worst-case estimates based on very high tryptamine contents reported in the literature did not exceed 5.9 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1, and thus were below the dose without effect. Maximum tolerable levels for food commodities were calculated for high-consumption scenarios (95th percentile of female Austrian consumers). For fresh/cooked fish, preserved fish, cheese, raw sausage, condiments, sauerkraut and fermented tofu, maximum tolerable levels were 1650, 3200, 2840, 4800, 14,120, 1740 and 2400 mg kg^?1, respectively. For beer, the maximum tolerable limit of 65 mg kg^?1 included an uncertainty factor of 10. None of the Austrian occurrence data exceeded these levels (in fact, only 3.3% of samples demonstrated measurable amounts of tryptamine), and just one report was found in the literature on a raw fish sample exceeding the respective tolerable level. In sum, dietary intake of tryptamine should not cause adverse health effects in healthy individuals. The assessment did not take into account the combined effects of simultaneously ingested biogenic amines, and increased susceptibility to tryptamine, e.g., due to reduced monoamine oxidase activity.     

Dietary exposure to lead of adults in Shenzhen city,China

Lead, a ubiquitous heavy metal, can be found in the environment and food. The present study is the first to estimate the lead dietary exposure of Shenzhen adults (≥ 20 years old) in various age–gender subgroups, and to assess the associated health risk. Food samples that represented the Shenzhen people’s dietary pattern were collected and prepared for analysis. Lead was determined in 13 food groups using 276 individual cooked samples by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Dietary exposures were estimated by combining the analytical results with the local food consumption data of Shenzhen adults. The mean and 95th percentile lead exposure of Shenzhen adults were 0.59–0.73 and 0.75–0.94 μg kg^?1 bw day^?1, respectively. In all food groups, the highest lead exposure was from ‘Eggs and their products’ (42.4–51.6% of the total exposure); preserved eggs being the main contributor. The other major contributors to lead exposure of Shenzhen adults were ‘Fish and seafood, and their products’ (14.3–16.7% of the total exposure) and ‘Vegetables and their products’ (15.5–16.2% of the total exposure). The margin of exposure (MOE) approach was used for the risk assessment of lead, and the results showed that the risk was considered to be low in all age–gender groups for Shenzhen adults. However, having considered a number of toxic effects of lead, it is suggested that more efforts should be made to reduce the lead levels in foodstuff for Shenzhen adults.     

Dietary exposure to chloropropanols of secondary school students in Hong Kong

This paper reports levels of 3-monochloropropan-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) in a wide range of food items and estimates their dietary exposure for secondary school students in Hong Kong. Dietary exposure to chloropropanols was estimated using local food consumption data obtained from secondary school students in 2000 and the concentrations of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP in food samples taken from the local market. The dietary exposure to 3-MCPD for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.063–0.150 µg kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.152–0.300 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. Both estimates fell below the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 µg kg^?1 bw established by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and amounted to less than 20% of this safety reference value. The dietary exposure to 1,3-DCP for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.003–0.019 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.009–0.040 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. The resulting margins of exposures were of low concern for human health. It could be concluded that both the average and high secondary school student consumers were unlikely to experience major toxicological effects of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP.     

Assessment of dietary exposure of nitrate and nitrite in France

The aim of this study was to assess the dietary exposure of nitrate and nitrite in France. A total of 13, 657 concentration levels of nitrate and nitrite measured in food, representing 138 and 109 food items, respectively, and coming from French monitoring programmes between 2000 and 2006, were used. Depending on the non-detected and non-quantified analysis treatment, lower and upper concentration mean estimates were calculated for each food item. These were combined with consumption data derived from 1474 adults and 1018 children from the French national individual consumption survey (INCA1), conducted in 1999 and based on a 7-day food record diary. A total of 18% of spinaches, 6% of salads, 10% of cheeses, 8% of meat products and 6% of industrial meat products exceeded the European nitrate maximum level or maximum residual level. A total of 0.4% of industrial meat products and 0.2% of meat products exceeded their European nitrite maximum level or maximum residual level. Nitrate dietary exposure averaged 40% of the acceptable daily intake (ADI; 3.7 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1) for adults and 51???54% of the ADI for children with the major contributors being, for adults and children, respectively, vegetables (24 and 27% of ADI), potatoes (5 and 11% of ADI), and water (5 and 5% of ADI). The individual nitrate dietary intake of 1.4% (confidence interval (CI_95th) [0.8; 2.0]) to 1.5% (CI_95th [0.9; 2.1]) of adults and 7.9% (CI_95th [6.2; 9.6]) to 8.4% (CI_95th [6.7; 10.1]) of children were higher than the ADI. Nitrite dietary exposure averaged 33–67% of the ADI (0.06 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1) for adults and 67–133% of the ADI for children, with contributions of additive food vectors at 33% of ADI for adults and 50–67% of ADI for children. The individual nitrite dietary intake of 0.7% (CI_95th [0.3; 1.1]) to 16.4% (CI_95th [14.5; 18.3]) of adults and 10.5% (CI_95th [8.6; 12.4]) to 66.2% (CI_95th [63.3; 69.1]) of children were higher than the ADI.     

Household dietary exposure to aflatoxins from maize and maize products in Kenya

Aflatoxicosis has repeatedly affected Kenyans, particularly in the eastern region, due to consumption of contaminated maize. However, save for the cases of acute toxicity, the levels of sub-lethal exposure have not been adequately assessed. It is believed that this type of exposure does exist even during the seasons when acute toxicity does not occur. This study, therefore, was designed to assess the exposure of households to aflatoxins through consumption of maize and maize products. Twenty samples each of maize kernels, muthokoi and maize meal were randomly sampled from households in Kibwezi District of Makueni County in Eastern Kenya and analysed for aflatoxin contamination. The samples were quantitatively analysed for aflatoxin contamination using HPLC. The uncertainty and variability in dietary exposure was quantitatively modelled in Ms Excel using Monte Carlo simulation in @Risk software. Aflatoxins were found in 45% of maize kernels at between 18 and 480 μg kg^–1, 20% of muthokoi at between 12 and 123 μg kg^–1, and 35% of maize meal at between 6 and 30 μg kg^–1. The mean dietary exposure to aflatoxin in maize kernels was 292 ± 1567 ng kg^?1 body weight day^?1, while the mean dietary exposure to aflatoxin in maize meal and muthokoi were 59 ± 62 and 27 ± 154 ng kg^?1 body weight day^?1 respectively. The results showed that the amount and frequency of consumption of the three foods is the more important contributing factor than the mean aflatoxin concentration levels, to the risk of dietary exposure to aflatoxins.