Predictive modelling of the exposure to steviol glycosides in Irish patients aged 1-3 years with phenylketonuria and cow’s milk protein allergy

Children with Phenylketonuria (PKU) and severe cow’s milk protein allergy (CMPA) consume prescribed, specially formulated, foods for special medical purposes (FSMPs) as well as restricted amounts of normal foods. These patients are exposed to artificial sweeteners from the consumption of a combination of free and prescribed foods. Young patients with PKU and CMPA have a higher risk of exceeding acceptable daily intakes (ADI) for additives than age-matched healthy children. A predictive modelling approach has been adapted successfully to assess the additive exposure of young patients with PKU and CMPA to artificial sweeteners. Steviol glycosides (E960) are at various stages of regulatory approval for the various food categories in the EU but are not as yet permitted for use in products intended for young children. The aim of this study was to predict potential steviol glycoside exposure in young children with PKU and CMPA considering the potential for future provisions for the use of this sweetener. The recent introduction of steviol glycosides means that no exposure data are available for children with CMPA and PKU. Food consumption data were derived from the food consumption survey data of healthy young children in Ireland from the National Preschool and Nutrition Survey (NPNS, 2010–11). Specially formulated amino acid-based FSMPs are used to replace whole or milk protein foods and were included in the exposure model to replace restricted foods. The recommendations to ensure adequate protein intake in these patients were used to determine FSMP intake. Exposure assessment results indicated that the maximum permitted level (MPL) for FSMPs would warrant careful consideration to avoid exposures above the ADI. These data can be used to inform recommendations for the medical nutrition industry.     

Probabilistic modelling to assess exposure to three artificial sweeteners of young Irish patients aged 1–3 years with PKU and CMPA

The choice of suitable normal foods is limited for individuals with particular medical conditions, e.g., inborn errors of metabolism (phenylketonuria – PKU) or severe cow’s milk protein allergy (CMPA). Patients may have dietary restrictions and exclusive or partial replacement of specific food groups with specially formulated products to meet particular nutrition requirements. Artificial sweeteners are used to improve the appearance and palatability of such food products to avoid food refusal and ensure dietary adherence. Young children have a higher risk of exceeding acceptable daily intakes for additives than adults due to higher food intakes kg^–1 body weight. The Budget Method and EFSA’s Food Additives Intake Model (FAIM) are not equipped to assess partial dietary replacement with special formulations as they are built on data from dietary surveys of consumers without special medical requirements impacting the diet. The aim of this study was to explore dietary exposure modelling as a means of estimating the intake of artificial sweeteners by young PKU and CMPA patients aged 1–3 years. An adapted validated probabilistic model (FACET) was used to assess patients’ exposure to artificial sweeteners. Food consumption data were derived from the food consumption survey data of healthy young children in Ireland from the National Preschool and Nutrition Survey (NPNS, 2010–11). Specially formulated foods for special medical purposes were included in the exposure model to replace restricted foods. Inclusion was based on recommendations for adequate protein intake and dietary adherence data. Exposure assessment results indicated that young children with PKU and CMPA have higher relative average intakes of artificial sweeteners than healthy young children. The reliability and robustness of the model in the estimation of patient additive exposures was further investigated and provides the first exposure estimates for these special populations.     

Investigation of the potential for a simplified exposure tool in medical nutrition (SETIM) to minimise exposures to sweeteners in young patients aged 1–3 years with PKU and CMPA

Children with phenylketonuria (PKU) and severe cow’s milk protein allergy (CMPA) consume prescribed, specially formulated, foods for special medical purposes (FSMPs) in addition to having restricted intake of normal foods. These vulnerable patients are exposed to artificial sweeteners from the consumption of a combination of both free and prescribed foods. Young patients with PKU and CMPA aged from 1 to 3 years have a higher risk of exceeding the acceptable daily intake (ADI) for sweeteners than age-matched healthy children. A probabilistic modelling approach has been adapted successfully to assess the exposure of young patients with PKU and CMPA to low-calorie sweeteners. To assist professionals in the screening and formulation of foods containing food additives for such patients, a simplified exposure method/tool has been developed. The tool is intended to ensure that total dietary exposure can be considered. The simplified tool is not intended to replace the probabilistic model but may be used as a screening tool to determine if further investigation on exposure is warranted. The aim of this study was to develop and validate this simplified exposure tool to support those currently used by healthcare professionals (HCPs) using data available from the probabilistic modelling of exposure in young children with PKU and CMPA. The probabilistic model does not allow for swift screening of exposure scenarios nor is the present EFSA Food Additive Intake Assessment Model (FAIM) fully suitable for application to medical foods. The simplified exposure tool in medical nutrition (SETIM) reported here is both reliable and consistent and provides additive usage levels which minimise regular exposure above the ADI in patients. In addition to the usefulness of SETIM for the medical nutrition industry, the tool has the potential to enhance the practice of evidence-based medical nutrition by official risk assessment bodies, registration authorities and healthcare professionals.     

Dietary intake of four artificial sweeteners by Irish pre-school children

In spite of rigorous pre- and post-market reviews of safety, there remains a high level of debate regarding the use of artificial sweeteners in foods. Young children are of particular interest when assessing food chemical exposure as a result of their unique food consumption patterns and comparatively higher exposure to food chemicals on a body weight basis when compared with the general population. The present study examined the intakes of four intense sweeteners (acesulfame K, aspartame, saccharin, sucralose) in the diets of children aged 1–4 years using food consumption and sweetener presence data from the Irish National Pre-school Nutrition Survey (2010–11) and analytical data for sweetener concentration in foods obtained from a national testing programme. Four exposure assessment scenarios were conducted using the available data on sweetener occurrence and concentration. The results demonstrated that the mean daily intakes for all four sweeteners were below the acceptable daily intake (ADI) (17–31%), even considering the most conservative assumptions regarding sweetener presence and concentration. High consumer intakes (P95) were also below the ADI for the four sweeteners when more realistic estimates of exposure were considered. Both sweetener occurrence and concentration data had a considerable effect on reducing the estimated intake values, with a combined reduction in intakes of 95% when expressed as a proportion of the ADI. Flavoured drinks were deemed to be a key contributor to artificial sweetener intakes in this population cohort. It was concluded that there is no health risk to Irish pre-school children at current dietary intake levels of the sweeteners studied.     

Dietary intake of artificial sweeteners by the Belgian population

This study investigated whether the Belgian population older than 15 years is at risk of exceeding ADI levels for acesulfame-K, saccharin, cyclamate, aspartame and sucralose through an assessment of usual dietary intake of artificial sweeteners and specific consumption of table-top sweeteners. A conservative Tier 2 approach, for which an extensive label survey was performed, showed that mean usual intake was significantly lower than the respective ADIs for all sweeteners. Even consumers with high intakes were not exposed to excessive levels, as relative intakes at the 95th percentile (p95) were 31% for acesulfame-K, 13% for aspartame, 30% for cyclamate, 17% for saccharin, and 16% for sucralose of the respective ADIs. Assessment of intake using a Tier 3 approach was preceded by optimisation and validation of an analytical method based on liquid chromatography with mass spectrometric detection. Concentrations of sweeteners in various food matrices and table-top sweeteners were determined and mean positive concentration values were included in the Tier 3 approach, leading to relative intakes at p95 of 17% for acesulfame-K, 5% for aspartame, 25% for cyclamate, 11% for saccharin, and 7% for sucralose of the corresponding ADIs. The contribution of table-top sweeteners to the total usual intake (<1% of ADI) was negligible. A comparison of observed intake for the total population with intake for diabetics (acesulfame-K: 3.55 versus 3.75; aspartame: 6.77 versus 6.53; cyclamate: 1.97 versus 2.06; saccharine: 1.14 versus 0.97; sucralose: 3.08 versus 3.03, expressed as mg kg(-1) bodyweight day(-1) at p95) showed that the latter group was not exposed to higher levels. It was concluded that the Belgian population is not at risk of exceeding the established ADIs for sweeteners.     

Safety assessment of 16 sweeteners for the Korean population using dietary intake monitoring and poundage method

ABSTRACT

A sweetener is a food additive that imparts a sweet taste to food products. Sweeteners have been increasingly used in Korea since the approval of sodium saccharin and d-sorbitol in 1962. Unlike food contaminants, humans are exposed to food additives only through the consumption of processed food products. For exposure assessments of sweeteners, the dietary intakes of food products containing acesulfame-K, aspartame, saccharin-Na, and sucralose were determined, and the resulting calculated estimated daily intake (EDI) values were compared directly with each additive’s ADI. The poundage method was used to calculate the daily intake per capita for 12 additional sweeteners, such as lactitol, for which appropriate analytical methods for food products do not exist. The risk, as evaluated by comparing the EDI with the ADI, was determined to be 2.9% for acesulfame-K, 0.8% for aspartame, 3.6% for saccharin-Na, 4.3% for steviol glycosides, and 2.1% for sucralose. No hazardous effect was predicted for the other 11 sweeteners, including lactitol.     

Dietary intake of non-nutritive sweeteners in type 1 diabetes mellitus children

The aims of the current cross-sectional study were (1) to assess the intake of aspartame, cyclamate, acesulfame-k, neohesperidine dihydrochalcone, sucralose, saccharin, steviol glycosides and neotame among children with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D); (2) to compare the obtained intakes with the respective acceptable daily intake (ADI) values; and (3) to conduct a scenario analysis to obtain practical guidelines for a safe consumption of non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) among children with T1D. T1D patients of the Paediatrics Department of the University Hospitals Leuven were invited to complete a food frequency questionnaire designed to assess NNS intake using a tier 2 and tier 3 exposure assessment approach. A scenario analysis was conducted by reducing the P95 consumption of the most contributing food categories in order to reach a total sweetener intake lower than or equal to the ADI. Estimated total intakes higher than ADIs were only found for the P95 consumers only of acesulfame-k, cyclamate and steviol glycosides (tier 2 and tier 3 approach). Scenario analysis created dietary guidelines for each age category for diet soda, bread spreads and dairy drinks. There is little chance for T1D children to exceed the ADI of the different NNS, however diabetes educators and dieticians need to pay attention regarding the use of NNS.     

Intake of saccharin and cyclamate from Finnish foods between 1979 and 1985

The dietary intake of saccharin and cyclamate was investigated during the period 1979-1985 in order to find out about the use as sweeteners in the food industry and hospitals and to obtain intake data for the toxicological evaluation of sweeteners in the Finnish diet. Eighty-nine samples of desserts served in 85 hospitals were analysed in 1983. Other samples investigated were artificially sweetened commercial foods available in Finland, such as soft drinks, sweets and jellies. The intake evaluation was carried out with reference to the acceptable daily intake (ADI), with commercial portions for a child being 20 kg and for an adult 60 kg. The most important foods with regard to the intake of saccharin and cyclamate were soft drinks. In 1979, 1982 and 1985, soft drinks contributed 128%, 93%, and 51%, respectively, of the ADI of artificial sweeteners for children and 42%, 31%, and 17% for adults. Artificially sweetened desserts served in hospitals contributed to 35% of the ADI for children and 11% for adults.     

The intake of intense sweeteners - an update review

Studies on the intakes of intense sweeteners in different countries published since the author's previous review in 1999 indicate that the average and 95th percentile intakes of acesulfame-K, aspartame, cyclamate and saccharin by adults are below the relevant acceptable daily intake (ADI) values. Fewer data are available for the newer sweeteners, sucralose and alitame, and because they are recent introductions to the market very low intakes were reported in those countries where they were available at the time of the intake study. Overall there has not been a significant change in the intakes of sweeteners in recent years. The only data indicating that the intake of an intense sweetener could exceed its ADI value were the 95th percentile intakes of cyclamate in children, particularly those with diabetes. This sub-group was identified as having high intakes of cyclamate in 1999, and recent studies have not generated reliable intake data to address this possibility.     

Assessment of Korean consumer exposure to sodium saccharin,aspartame and stevioside

The dietary intakes of sodium saccharin, aspartame and stevioside were estimated on the basis of food consumption data of the Korean consumer and the concentration of sweeteners in processed foods. Results were compared with the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of sweeteners. Among the 28 food categories for which the application of sodium saccharin, aspartame and stevioside is permitted in Korea, they were detected in 5, 12 and 13 categories, respectively. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of sodium saccharin and aspartame were high in infants and children, whereas the EDI of stevioside was high in adolescents and adults. The most highly consumed sweetener was aspartame, and the highest EDI/ADI ratio was found for sodium saccharin. The main food categories contributing to sweetener consumption were beverages, including alcoholic beverages. For most Korean consumers, the EDIs were no greater than 20% of their corresponding ADI; however, the EDI of sodium saccharin for conservative consumers aged 1–2 years reached 60% of their ADI.     

Estimated intake of the artificial sweeteners acesulfame-K, aspartame, cyclamate and saccharin in a group of Swedish diabetics.

Few sweetener intake studies have been performed on the general population and only one study has been specifically designed to investigate diabetics and children. This report describes a Swedish study on the estimated intake of the artificial sweeteners acesulfame-K, aspartame, cyclamate and saccharin by children (0-15 years) and adult male and female diabetics (types I and II) of various ages (16-90 years). Altogether, 1120 participants were asked to complete a questionnaire about their sweetener intake. The response rate (71%, range 59-78%) was comparable across age and gender groups. The most consumed 'light' foodstuffs were diet soda, cider, fruit syrup, table powder, table tablets, table drops, ice cream, chewing gum, throat lozenges, sweets, yoghurt and vitamin C. The major sources of sweetener intake were beverages and table powder. About 70% of the participants, equally distributed across all age groups, read the manufacturer's specifications of the food products' content. The estimated intakes showed that neither men nor women exceeded the ADI for acesulfame-K; however, using worst-case calculations, high intakes were found in young children (169% of ADI). In general, the aspartame intake was low. Children had the highest estimated (worst case) intake of cyclamate (317% of ADI). Children's estimated intake of saccharin only slightly exceeded the ADI at the 5% level for fruit syrup. Children had an unexpected high intake of tabletop sweeteners, which, in Sweden, is normally based on cyclamate. The study was performed during two winter months when it can be assumed that the intake of sweeteners was lower as compared with during warm, summer months. Thus, the present study probably underestimates the average intake on a yearly basis. However, our worst-case calculations based on maximum permitted levels were performed on each individual sweetener, although exposure is probably relatively evenly distributed among all sweeteners, except for cyclamate containing table sweeteners.     

Dietary intakes of six intense sweeteners by Irish adults

This research investigated the intakes of six intense sweeteners: acesulfame-K (E950), aspartame (E951), cyclamate (E952), saccharin (E954), sucralose (E955), and steviol glycosides (E960) in the diets of Irish adults, using data from the National Adult Nutrition Survey. A food label survey that included products currently available on the Irish market supplemented the analysis. Sweetener intakes were investigated using three different exposure scenarios; beginning with a crude assessment which assumed that all foods permitted to contain the additives of interest always did contain them, and at their maximum permitted level (Tier 1). Refined assessments estimated intakes of the six sweeteners using food consumption data up to brand level with additive occurrence data from a survey of products currently available on the Irish market (Tier 2) and sweetener concentration data (Tier 3). Results of all exposure assessment scenarios demonstrate that intakes of each of the sweeteners of interest by the total population were below the relevant ADI level (mg kg^?1 bodyweight^?1), even by high consumers (P99). The three sweeteners consumed in highest amounts were acesulfame-k, aspartame, and sucralose. The main sources of these sweeteners in the diet were ‘cider and perry’, ‘energy reduced and no added sugar (ER and NAS) carbonated flavoured drinks’, ‘table-top sweeteners’, ‘dairy products’, ‘solid food supplements’, and ‘sauces’. Intakes of the six intense sweeteners are currently not a concern among Irish adults. However, exposure to these chemicals should be monitored on a regular basis due to evolving market and consumption patterns.     

Assessment of dietary exposure in the French population to 13 selected food colours,preservatives, antioxidants,stabilizers, emulsifiers and sweeteners

The results of French intake estimates for 13 food additives prioritized by the methods proposed in the 2001 Report from the European Commission on Dietary Food Additive Intake in the European Union are reported. These 13 additives were selected using the first and second tiers of the three-tier approach. The first tier was based on theoretical food consumption data and the maximum permitted level of additives. The second tier used real individual food consumption data and the maximum permitted level of additives for the substances which exceeded the acceptable daily intakes (ADI) in the first tier. In the third tier reported in this study, intake estimates were calculated for the 13 additives (colours, preservatives, antioxidants, stabilizers, emulsifiers and sweeteners) according to two modelling assumptions corresponding to two different food habit scenarios (assumption 1: consumers consume foods that may or may not contain food additives, and assumption 2: consumers always consume foods that contain additives) when possible. In this approach, real individual food consumption data and the occurrence/use-level of food additives reported by the food industry were used. Overall, the results of the intake estimates are reassuring for the majority of additives studied since the risk of exceeding the ADI was low, except for nitrites, sulfites and annatto, whose ADIs were exceeded by either children or adult consumers or by both populations under one and/or two modelling assumptions. Under the first assumption, the ADI is exceeded for high consumers among adults for nitrites and sulfites (155 and 118.4%, respectively) and among children for nitrites (275%). Under the second assumption, the average nitrites dietary exposure in children exceeds the ADI (146.7%). For high consumers, adults exceed the nitrite and sulfite ADIs (223 and 156.4%, respectively) and children exceed the nitrite, annatto and sulfite ADIs (416.7, 124.6 and 130.6%, respectively).     

Exposure assessment of food preservatives (sulphites,benzoic and sorbic acid) in Austria

An exposure assessment was performed to estimate the potential intake of preservatives in the Austrian population. Food consumption data of different population groups, such as preschool children aged 3–6 years, female and male adults aged 19–65 years were used for calculation. Levels of the preservatives in food were derived from analyses conducted from January 2007 to August 2010. Dietary intakes of the preservatives were estimated and compared to the respective acceptable daily intakes (ADIs). In the average-intake scenario, assuming that consumers randomly consume food products that do or do not contain food additives, estimated dietary intakes of all studied preservatives are well below the ADI for all population groups. Sulphite exposure accounted for 34%, 84% and 89% of the ADI in preschool children, females and males, respectively. The mean estimated daily intake of benzoic acid was 32% (preschool children), 31% (males) and 36% (females) of the ADI. Sorbic acid intakes correspond to 7% of the ADI in preschool children and 6% of the ADI in adults. In the high-intake scenario assuming that consumers always consume food products that contain additives and considering a kind of brand loyalty of consumers, the ADI is exceeded for sulphites among adults (119 and 124%, respectively). Major contributors to the total intake of sulphites were wine and dried fruits for adults. Mean estimated dietary intakes of benzoic acid exceeded the ADI in all population groups, 135% in preschool children, 124% in females and 118% of the ADI in males, respectively. Dietary intakes of sorbic acid are well below the ADI, accounting for a maximum of 30% of the ADI in preschool children. The highest contributors to benzoic and sorbic acid exposure were fish and fish products mainly caused by high consumption data of this large food group, including also mayonnaise-containing fish salads. Other important sources of sorbic acid were bread, buns and toast bread and fruit and vegetable juices.     

Assessment of dietary exposure of young Chinese children to aluminium residues

The aim of this study was to assess the Al dietary exposure of young Chinese children aged 0–3 years via formulae, complementary foods and wheat-based foods. Al residue data were obtained from the national food contamination monitoring programme from 2013 to 2016, encompassing 13,833 samples of 12 food items with a detection rate of 76.0%. Food consumption data were gathered from the China National Food Consumption Survey conducted in 2015, comprising 20,172 children aged 0–3 years old. The mean dietary exposure to Al for the general population of young Chinese children was estimated at 0.76 mg/kg bw/week, which does not exceed the PTWI. The 97.5th percentile intakes of Al reached 3.42 mg/kg bw/week, more than 1.7 times the PTWI. Wheat-based foods contributed 80.5% of the Al intake for the general population of young Chinese children, while formulae and complementary foods accounted for 19.5% of the total intake. The dietary intake of Al from formulae and complementary foods accounted for 6.0% and 1.6% of PTWI, respectively. These findings suggested that dietary exposure to Al among the general population of young Chinese children was lower than the PTWI and that there are no health concerns related to this level of Al intake. However, more attention should be placed on the health risks associated with Al exposure from wheat-based foods for young consumers with high food consumption in China (97.5th percentile)     

Exposure assessment of food preservatives (sulphites, benzoic and sorbic acid) in Austria

An exposure assessment was performed to estimate the potential intake of preservatives in the Austrian population. Food consumption data of different population groups, such as preschool children aged 3-6 years, female and male adults aged 19-65 years were used for calculation. Levels of the preservatives in food were derived from analyses conducted from January 2007 to August 2010. Dietary intakes of the preservatives were estimated and compared to the respective acceptable daily intakes (ADIs). In the average-intake scenario, assuming that consumers randomly consume food products that do or do not contain food additives, estimated dietary intakes of all studied preservatives are well below the ADI for all population groups. Sulphite exposure accounted for 34%, 84% and 89% of the ADI in preschool children, females and males, respectively. The mean estimated daily intake of benzoic acid was 32% (preschool children), 31% (males) and 36% (females) of the ADI. Sorbic acid intakes correspond to 7% of the ADI in preschool children and 6% of the ADI in adults. In the high-intake scenario assuming that consumers always consume food products that contain additives and considering a kind of brand loyalty of consumers, the ADI is exceeded for sulphites among adults (119 and 124%, respectively). Major contributors to the total intake of sulphites were wine and dried fruits for adults. Mean estimated dietary intakes of benzoic acid exceeded the ADI in all population groups, 135% in preschool children, 124% in females and 118% of the ADI in males, respectively. Dietary intakes of sorbic acid are well below the ADI, accounting for a maximum of 30% of the ADI in preschool children. The highest contributors to benzoic and sorbic acid exposure were fish and fish products mainly caused by high consumption data of this large food group, including also mayonnaise-containing fish salads. Other important sources of sorbic acid were bread, buns and toast bread and fruit and vegetable juices.     

Daily intake assessment of saccharin, stevioside, D-sorbitol and aspartame from various processed foods in Korea

This study was carried out to estimate the daily intakes (EDIs) of artificial sweeteners such as saccharin, stevioside, D-sorbitol and aspartame in order to evaluate the safety of the artificial sweeteners in Korea. A total of 274 food samples were selected from the foods considered to be representative sources of artificial sweeteners in the Korean diet and analysed by using HPLC with evaporative light scattering and ultraviolet detectors. In case of aspartame, the reference values were used without instrumental analysis. The EDIs of saccharin, stevioside, D-sorbitol and aspartame for average consumers were 0.028, 0.008, 4.9 and 0.14 mg kg^-1 body weight day^-1, respectively, and as a proportion of the acceptable daily intake (ADI) were not higher than 1% of ADI of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). For 90th percentile consumers, the EDIs of saccharin, stevioside, D-sorbitol and aspartame were 2.0, 0.20, 141 and 4.6 mg kg^-1 body weight day^-1, respectively, and as a proportion of the ADI, the EDIs of saccharin and aspartame were 40.7% and 11.4% of the ADI set by the JECFA, respectively. Because JECFA did not assign ADIs for stevioside and D-sorbitol, the values for these sweeteners were not compared. According to these results, the EDIs of artificial sweeteners such as saccharin and aspartame in Korea are significantly lower than ADI set by the JECFA.     

Dietary exposure of the Belgian population to emulsifiers E481 (sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate) and E482 (calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate)

A dietary exposure assessment of food emulsifiers E481 (sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate) and E482 (calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate) in the Belgian population was performed. Nationally representative food consumption data from the Belgian National Food Consumption Surveys 2004 (BNFCS2004) and 2014 (BNFCS2014) were used for calculations. A conservative approach (combining individual food consumption data with the maximum permitted level (MPL) of foods (tier 2), was compared with more refined estimates (combining individual food consumption data with actual concentrations measured in food products available on the Belgian market (tier 3)). Estimated daily intakes were compared to the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of the stearoyl-2-lactylates. The results of tier 2 demonstrated that 92% of the children (3–9 years), 53% of the adolescents (10–17 years), 15% of the adults (18–64 years) and 26% of the elderly (64–98 years) had a potential intake higher than the ADI. When replacing the MPL with maximum analysed concentration levels in foods, daily intake estimates decreased dramatically. The estimated daily intake of the food emulsifiers was below the ADI for all age groups, except for a small percentage of children (1.9%) for which the intake exceeded the ADI. The main contributors to the exposure of E481 and E482 were bread, rolls and fine bakery wares.     

Nitrate, nitrite, and N-nitroso compounds in Finnish foods and the estimation of the dietary intakes

An estimate of the dietary intakes of nitrite, nitrate and N-nitroso compounds is presented, based on the analytical data supplied by the Finnish Food Quality Control. Figures on the food consumption of the Finnish population, taken from a national dietary survey, and food consumption of 1768 children and adolescents over a 48-h recall period were used. The mean daily dietary nitrate intakes were estimated to be about 55 mg for the total population and for children and adolescents. The mean nitrite intakes were 1.88 mg for the total population and 1.07 mg for children and adolescents. The intake of N-nitroso compounds (NDMA) was estimated to be 0.08 micrograms for the total population and 0.02 micrograms for children. Nitrates were found to originate mainly from vegetables (80%), nitrites from meat products (97%) and nitrosamines mostly from fish products and beer. A comparison of the estimate of dietary intake of with ADI values indicated that the nitrite intake of the total population was 23% and by children 39% of ADI. The average weight was approximately 60 kg for adults and 20 kg for children. When measured average weight (39 kg) was used, and the nitrite intake was found to be 28% of ADI. Nitrate intakes from food additives were 2.5% and 1.4% of the ADI value, respectively. When the total nitrate intake from various food sources was compared with the ADI (which is given only for food additives), the estimated nitrate intake of the total population was 25% and that of children 28% of the ADI value.     

关于苯丙酮尿症特殊医学用途配方食品研发与应用进展

苯丙酮尿症患者因基因缺陷导致无法正常代谢苯丙氨酸而必须终生严格限制苯丙氨酸或其结构类似物的摄入,因此,研究和开发适用于苯丙酮尿症的特殊医学用途配方食品对于保障患者身体健康和提升生活品质有重要意义。本文就苯丙酮尿症患者的饮食方案进行了综述,重点分析了特殊低蛋白食品、低苯丙肽类食品及基于糖巨肽的特殊医学用途配方食品,详述了上述食品的来源或制备技术、功能特性,同时针对目前该领域中存在的产品形态单一、适口性差等问题,展望了未来的研究方向和研究重点,以期为苯丙酮尿症特殊医学用途配方食品的研发提供参考。