Size constancy in mental retardates and normals: A signal-detectability analysis.

Investigated size constancy differences among 11 institutionalized retardates, 6 noninstitutionalized retardates, 12 institutionalized normals (prison inmates), and 20 noninstitutionalized normals (college students) by psychometric function, signal detectability, and uncertainty analyses. Both retarded groups were perceptually deficient in making size judgments. This impairment paralleled that found between nonparanoid schizophrenics and normals by R. Price and C. Eriksen (see pa, vol. 40:9050). In addition, institutionalized retardates were less consistent in use of decisional rules than noninstitutionalized retardates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextual cues and release from proactive inhibition in young and old people.

Three experiments examined whether elderly people perform similarly to Korsakoff amnesics on tests of release from proactive inhibition (PI). In Exp I, with 20 18–36 yr old undergraduates, 20 64–77 yr old university alumni, 20 employed 21–43 yr olds, and 21 institutionalized but healthy 71–92 yr olds, only the latter Ss failed to release from PI, like Korsakoff amnesics, whereas all the other groups of Ss showed the normal release from PI. Exp II, with 12 institutionalized 64–90 yr olds and 12 25–47 yr old controls, showed that release from PI could be induced in institutionalized elderly, as in Korsakoff amnesics, by salient environmental cues that coincided with the category shift. Exp III, with 13 67–89 yr old institutionalized Ss and 12 22–42 yr old controls, demonstrated that even in the absence of a category shift, salient environmental cues could lead to smaller, but noticeable, release from PI in institutionalized elderly, but not in young controls. The similarity in performance between the institutionalized elderly and Korsakoff amnesics suggested that it results from a common neurological deficit. (French abstract) (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of mental retardates and normals on the rotating trapezoidal window illusion.

56 high-grade institutionalized adolescent retardates and 56 normals of equated CA were, after training, split into 4 groups: Groups I and II observed a rotating trapezoidal window monocularly and binocularly, respectively; Groups III and IV observed a rotating trapezoidal shape, which had no windows cut out or shadows painted on it, monocularly and binocularly, respectively. Analysis of variance shows that visual conditions and stimuli are significant, but groups are not. The finding that retardates do not differ from normals on a reduced-cue ("experiential") illusion, contrasts with previous findings that they differ on full-cue ("physiological") illusions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental differences in responses to a television character's appearance and behavior.

In a 2?×?2?×?3 design, 52 3–5 yr olds, 58 6–7 yr olds, and 59 9–10 yr olds viewed a videotape in which a female protagonist's appearance (attractive, ugly) was factorially varied with her behavior (kind, cruel). Perceptions of the protagonist and predictions of the story's outcome were assessed. Based on theoretical and empirical evidence of a developmental decrease in perceptual dependence, the influence of the woman's appearance was expected to decrease with age, and the influence of her behavior was expected to increase with age. These expectations were confirmed. A 2nd study was conducted with 40 4–5 yr olds, 41 6–7 yr olds, and 34 9–21 yr olds to rule out the alternative explanation that younger children possess stronger physical appearance stereotypes than do older children. In this study, Ss did not have information about the woman's behavior. It was found that Ss at all 3 age levels demonstrated appearance stereotyping. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual perception of sequential numerosity by normals and retardates.

Presented sequences of 2-10 50-msec light flashes at interstimulus intervals (ISIs) of 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600 msec. for multiple- and single-locus conditions to 20 educable retardates and 20 equal MA normals. Numerosity discrimination of the younger, normal children was more accurate at all ISIs (p     

Adult age differences in memory-driven selective attention.

Investigated the ability of young and elderly adults to use memory-driven selective attention in 2 visual-search experiments. In Exp I, 16 18–22 yr olds and 16 60–74 yr olds were Ss in a yes–no search paradigm. Stimulus-onset-asynchrony (SOA) was varied from 200 to 1,000 msec. In Exp II, 18 18–24 yr olds and 18 60–73 yr olds were presented 1 of 2 target letters as a cue, using the same SOA ranges. Results in both experiments show that both age groups exhibited faster RTs to a visual display on trials when advance information (a cue) correctly predicted the particular target letter that would most likely be present in the display. Variations in the SOA between the cue and the display demonstrated that both age groups were capable of developing this selective preparation for a particular target letter within 200 msec. Results indicate that age differences in performance were determined primarily by quantitative changes in the speed of information processing rather than by qualitative changes in attention. In both experiments, the 2 age groups differed in the type of relationship between speed and accuracy that they adopted, suggesting a possible age difference in performance strategy. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Notational adaptation in children.

Three experiments examined whether and how children adapt their notations (use of external symbol systems) to the communicative needs of addresses of different ages. In Exp 1, 26 8–9 yr olds, 28 10–11 yr olds, and 11 adults made 2 notations about a solution to a simple board puzzle, one for a peer and the other for a 6-yr-old. Exp 2, with 28 8–9 yr olds, 23 10–11 yr olds, and 30 adults, focused on oral adaptations in the same context. In Exp 3, 28 8–9 yr-olds, 21 10–11 yr olds, and 30 adults were asked to choose ready-made notations for different addresses. Children's notations at both age groups were overall informative and adequate and improved with age. Children's notation's however, were not as sophisticated as verbal instructions, possible due to the Ss' more extensive experience with oral communication. Children's notational adaptation also developed with age. Some 8–9 yr olds and many 10–11 yr olds made systematic changes in their notations and verbal instructions for addresses of different ages. Most Ss of both age groups were aware of the difference in communicative competence between the younger addressee and the peer. They also shared with adults certain assumptions regarding the needs of the younger addresses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's concepts of volume and flotation.

Conducted a pilot study in which children (aged 7–9 yrs and 11–13 yrs) were asked to judge which 1 out of 3 wooden blocks would float (or sink), given weight and volume information for each block relative to a block that was known to float (or sink). Analysis of explanations indicated that judgments may have been based on the size–weight illusion. An experiment exploring the basis of flotation judgments was conducted with 14 children aged 7 yrs 1 mo to 9 yrs 6 mo and 16 children aged 11 yrs 4 mo to 14 yrs 11 mo that involved a test for judgment of volume based on information integration theory. Results show that Ss aged 7–24 yrs accurately judged volume by integrating 3 dimensions—width, depth, and height—according to the multiplicative rule. A rule assessment of their flotation judgments showed no age differences in initial rule, with weight rules being most popular. However, after feedback there were marked age effects; the 7–9 yr olds abandoned their initial rule without finding an alternative, and the 11–24 yr olds were generally able to find the correct flotation rule. It is concluded that children aged 7–24 yrs can judge volume but 7–9 yr olds have difficulty with the concept of flotation, possibly because it requires mental comparison of 2 ratios, a task known to be difficult for 7–9 yr olds. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rigidity in the retarded: A further test of the Lewin-Kounin formulation.

Groups of younger and older familial retardates from 2 institutions and a group of normals were compared on 3 of Kounin's measures of rigidity. The general findings were inconsistent with the Lewin-Kounin rigidity formulation and the results reported by Kounin. The differences obtained between the groups investigated here are discussed in terms of a number of cognitive and motivational factors which have been advanced to explain differences in performance between normals and retardates of the same MA. (30 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enumeration versus tracking during unimodal and multimodal sequential information processing in normals and retardates.

Presented varying length pulse sequences to 24 16-yr-old educable retardates, 24 equal chronological age (CA) normals, and 24 9-yr-old equal mental age (MA) normals under 3 modality switching conditions and 2 response modes. Error magnitudes were greatest for retardates, less for equal-MA normals, and least for equal-CA normals. Error magnitudes also increased significantly from the no switching to maximum modality switching condition, from the enumeration to motor tracking response mode, and with increasing numerosities. Error increases from enumeration to tracking and from no switching to maximum modality switching rates were predominantly underestimations, confirming previous findings that attention shifting interferes with input or storage of stimulus number. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Object-discrimination learning set acquisition in young cerebral palsied children in relation to tested and rated intelligence.

Explored object-discrimination learning set formation as a potential means of assessing the intelligence of children with neuromotor handicaps. 40 learning set problems were administered to the following groups, each containing 6 2-31/2 yr. old Ss: cerebral palsied (CP) children who tested as retarded but who were rated as not being retarded, CP children who tested and were rated as being retarded, nonhandicapped retardates, and nonhandicapped children with average intelligence. The CPs who were rated as not retarded performed like the normals; both were significantly better learners than the other 2 groups. The import of these findings for the future assessment of such children and the role that other variables play in such learning are discussed. (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual search for features and conjunctions in development.

Visual search performance was examined in 24 7–8 yr olds, 22 9–10 yr olds, 15 11–12 yr olds, and in 10 young adults (aged 23–30 yrs). Color and orientation feature searches and a conjunction search were conducted. Reaction time (RT) showed expected improvements in processing speed with age. Comparisons of RTs on target-present and target-absent trials were consistent with parallel search on the 2 feature conditions and with serial search in the conjunction condition. The RT results indicate that searches for feature arid conjunctions were treated similarly for children and adults. However, the youngest children missed more targets at the largest array sizes, most strikingly in conjunction search. Based on an analysis of speed/accuracy trade-offs, we suggest that low target-distractor discriminability leads to an undersampling of array elements, and is responsible for the high number of misses in the youngest children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual versus tactual receptor preference in normal and schizophrenic children.

Receptor preferences between visual or tactual stimuli were measured in schizophrenic and normal children. 4 pairs of standardized choice situations between visual or tactual stimuli were used, with the time of engagement with either stimulus constituting the preference measure. Schizophrenic children, ages 7-9, were compared with same aged normal children. A group of retardates were used for MA control. Schizophrenics were significantly lower in visual preference than the same aged normals, and an age trend for increased visual preference was found in the normal sample. Retardates showed greater visual preference than schizophrenics of comparable MA. Some implications for theory of schizophrenia are discussed. (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Outer-directedness in the problem solving of normal and retarded children.

2 studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that the high incidence of failure experienced by retardates results in their employing an outer-directed style of problem solving. In Study I 20 retarded and 20 normal children matched on MA experienced either a success or a failure condition on 3 games and were then tested on 2 imitation tasks. Retardates were found to be more imitative than normals. All the children were found to be more imitative following the failure than the success condition. In Study II 20 normal and 20 retarded children matched on MA and divided into experimental and control groups performed on 2 object-assembly and 1 block-board task. In the experimental condition E engaged in certain behaviors that if attended to would interfere with S's performance on the 1st object-assembly task and facilitate performance on the 2nd object-assembly task, and which would provide S with a response that could be imitated on the block-board game. As predicted, the retarded experimental group did poorer than the normal experimental group on the 1st object-assembly task, but was superior to the normals on the 2nd object assembly task. They also showed a tendency to be more imitative on the block-board game, and they made more glances toward E. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pictures, imagery, and retarded children's prose learning.

96 10–16 yr old educable mental retardates were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental conditions to listen to a 20-sentence story: Picture Ss viewed illustrations of the story, imagery Ss were instructed to generate mental pictures of the story, repetition control Ss heard each sentence of the story twice, and control Ss simply listened to the story once. Planned comparisons revealed that picture Ss recalled more story information than did Ss in all other groups. Differences among the other conditions, age by conditions interactions, and age differences per se were not statistically significant. A number of theoretically and practically interesting issues are discussed in the context of recent prose learning findings with normal children. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of mental retardates and normals on kinesthetic figural aftereffects.

The reactivity of normals and retardates was compared on tests of visual and kinesthetic afteraffects. Mental retardates were shown to be characterized by a weaker satiation process than normals of comparable CA. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4JI86S. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral comparisons of children from abusive and distressed families.

Investigated the problem behaviors of 35 physically abused 6–16 yr olds in comparison with 36 nonabused children from a child welfare agency and 35 nonabused children in the community. Parental report of behavioral strengths and weaknesses was examined by administering the Child Behavior Profile. Results concur with those of previous reports that abused children display a significantly greater number of behavior problems and fewer social competencies than normals. The behavior patterns of abused Ss closely resembled the range of behavior problems shown by Ss from distressed families in which abuse was not present. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Information processing and the development of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic social values.

109 3–10 yr old Ss completed an individualized regression assessment of social values, a central-incidental memory measure, and a free-recall word list task in a study that assessed the possibility that the developmental difference in social values is associated with the development of information-processing capabilities. Findings demonstrate developmental differences in social values and suggest a possible partial explanation for the differences. The modal social value among 3–5 yr olds was individualism, while among 6–7 yr olds and 8–20 yr olds the modal social value was superiority. The oldest Ss expressed a social value involving equality more frequently than did younger Ss. It is suggested that older children, compared to younger children, more often consider the relative nature of their outcomes and more often engage in social comparison. Performance on the memory tasks was consistently associated with age: Ss who expressed an individualism social value generally performed more poorly on the memory measures than did Ss who expressed any other social value. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cognitive interviewing and practice on children's recall performance.

In Exp 1, a staged event was carried out that involved a private encounter between an unfamiliar man and 2 children. The results show that questioning techniques based on principles from cognitive psychology significantly increased the number of correct facts recalled by both 7–8 yr olds and 10–11 yr olds over that gained with standard interview procedures and without affecting the number of incorrect items generated. These results were replicated in Exp 2 with a different staged event and with 8–9 yr olds and 11–12 yr olds. Exp 2 also assessed the impact of a prior practice cognitive interview, and practice was found to be effective for both age groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)