Outer-directedness in the problem solving of normal and retarded children.

2 studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that the high incidence of failure experienced by retardates results in their employing an outer-directed style of problem solving. In Study I 20 retarded and 20 normal children matched on MA experienced either a success or a failure condition on 3 games and were then tested on 2 imitation tasks. Retardates were found to be more imitative than normals. All the children were found to be more imitative following the failure than the success condition. In Study II 20 normal and 20 retarded children matched on MA and divided into experimental and control groups performed on 2 object-assembly and 1 block-board task. In the experimental condition E engaged in certain behaviors that if attended to would interfere with S's performance on the 1st object-assembly task and facilitate performance on the 2nd object-assembly task, and which would provide S with a response that could be imitated on the block-board game. As predicted, the retarded experimental group did poorer than the normal experimental group on the 1st object-assembly task, but was superior to the normals on the 2nd object assembly task. They also showed a tendency to be more imitative on the block-board game, and they made more glances toward E. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Numerosity discrimination of repetitive visual stimuli by mildly retarded adolescents and normal children.

Compared 20 male and 20 female retarded adolescents with 40 younger normals matched for sex and ma on a visual numerosity task. Sequential light flashes of 300, 500, and 700 msec. Occurring in multiple loci were presented in trains of 3-38 flashes. Error frequency and magnitude scores were significantly (p     

The feeling of knowing experience in educable retarded children.

Required 50 educable retarded children to predict their recognition accuracy when recall failed. Ss were divided into 3 ability levels: (a) old Ss (mean CA 13.25 yrs, mean MA 10.5 yrs), (b) medium Ss (mean CA 11.25 yrs, mean MA 8.75 yrs), and (c) young Ss (mean CA 9 yrs 5 mo, mean MA 6 yrs 9 mo). Results indicate that old and medium Ss could reliably predict their recognition accuracy, suggesting sensitivity to their own feeling of knowing experience, but that the young Ss showed no evidence of this sensitivity. Even though the young Ss had difficulty predicting their recognition accuracy in advance they were able to estimate the success or failure of their responses after they had occurred. Results are discussed in terms of the complexity of the metamemory judgment required, and the advisability of evaluating metamemorial knowledge across several situations is emphasized. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fact-retrieval automatization and math problem solving by learning disabled, attention-disordered, and normal adolescents.

Learning disabled, attention-disordered, and normal adolescents were assessed with 2 performance measures and 3 behavioral measures, recorded while the Ss worked on math problems. Differences were found between the combined experimental and comparison groups in retrieval speed for each operation, but not in accuracy. Off-task attention contributed to the slower speeds of Ss only during multiplication. Rapid fact retrieval was the only significant predictor of the number of correct answers to word problems. Because of the statistical and procedural controls used (IQ, reading skill, and initial math ability), experimental vs control group differences in problem solving were demonstrated only for specific types of word problems. Overall, these findings support theoretical predictions that attention-disordered and learning disabled children have difficulty with repetitive stimuli, which contributes to basic- and advanced-level math deficits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social problem solving in suicidal adolescents.

Whether adolescent suicide attempters would have deficits in interpersonal problem solving and the relation between social problem solving, suicide intent, and medical lethality were evaluated. Compared with psychiatric and normal controls, adolescents who attempted suicide exhibited poorer social problem-solving abilities, particularly in terms of problem orientation. Specifically, suicide attempters brought more maladaptive cognitive-emotional-behavioral response sets to problematic situations than did psychiatric and normal controls. Both suicide attempters and psychiatric controls had similar deficits in problem-solving skills (e.g., generation of alternatives, decision making, and solution implementation) compared with nonhospitalized peers. Social problem solving was not found to be correlated with suicide lethality or intent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal problem solving in young children.

24 children at each of 3 age levels (4, 6, and 8 yrs) were asked a series of class inclusion questions presented verbally, visually, and kinesthetically. Four-year-olds performed significantly better under the verbal condition than they did under the visual or kinesthetic condition. There was no effect of condition for 6- or 8-yr-olds on response accuracy. Analysis of correctness of reasons showed main effects of Age and Condition. The majority of the reasons given across ages were based on a comparison between the 2 subclasses, providing support for the misinterpretation hypothesis as an explanation for children's errors. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inferential problem solving in young children.

Children younger than 7–8 yrs of age have been considered incapable of inferential problem solving, defined as the combination of separately acquired behavior segments in order to solve a novel problem. This lack of inferential ability has been attributed to a deficit in spontaneous mediation. The present paper reports an experiment which demonstrates that 5–6-yr-olds are capable of inferential problem solving. Ss were 40 children, aged 5 yrs, 0 mo to 5 yrs, 11 mo, who had a mean score of 105.72 on the English Picture Vocabulary Test. The finding cannot be explained by the mediation-deficit hypothesis. An alternative interpretation is offered which argues that young children's inferential performance is constrained not by an inability to integrate separate or past experiences, but by their understanding of the separate elements involved. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social maladjustment and problem solving in school-aged children.

Examined the relationship between social adjustment and the cognitive skills of solving interpersonal problems. 68 popular, aggressive, or isolated boys at 2 grade levels (2nd–3rd and 4th–5th) were presented with 6 hypothetical problem situations and asked to generate alternative solutions to the problems. Ss were subsequently asked to evaluate the effectiveness of solutions presented to them by the experimenter. It was found that the popular Ss generated more solutions than either the aggressive or isolated groups, which did not differ. The initial solutions of all groups were rated as "effective," in most cases, by independent coders. Subsequent solutions, however, varied as a function of S status. Popular Ss continued to generate effective solutions, whereas deviant Ss generated aggressive and ineffective solutions. No differences among S groups were found in the evaluations of the effectiveness of given solutions. Data support the notion that deviant boys are deficient in the cognitive problem-solving skills of generating alternative solutions but are not deficient in the evaluation of presented solutions. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Discrimination and switching learning in normal, familial retarded, and organic retarded children.

In an effort to explicate the contradictory findings of earlier studies, normals, familial retardates, and organic retardates at 2 MA levels were trained on either a 3-choice or a 2-choice discrimination task. Following solution of the original task Ss were switched to either a new 3-choice discrimination, a 2-choice transposition, or a 2-choice reversal problem. There were no significant types of S main effects on either the 1st or 2nd problems. It was concluded that the findings offered no support for the view that the cognitive functioning of retardates is inherently different from normals of the same MA. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Read-out times from iconic memory in normal and retarded adolescents

The method limits was used to obtain an estimate of read-out times for a sample of 12 normal and 12 retarded subjects matched on chronological age. The procedure required tachistoscopic presentation of a stimulus array (2, 4, or 6 digits) for a variable duration, followed by a post-stimulus. The subject's task was to recall the digit indicated by the cue. The results indicated that read-out time (a) increased as the number of digits increased, (b) was longer for retardates relative to normals, and (c) decreased with practice for both intelligence groups. The implications of a read-out deficit in retarded individuals were discussed.     

Instruction by mothers and fathers during problem solving with their young children.

Mothers and fathers of 163 5-year-olds were observed interacting with their children in dyads on 2 separate occasions on a familiar and unfamiliar cognitive activity. Within- and between-family comparisons were conducted. Few differences in the instruction provided by mothers and fathers appeared, and those that did were on the unfamiliar task. On this task, instruction by mothers, within and across families, was more responsive to children's changing skill than was instruction by fathers. Directive and disapproving comments by parents were related to poorer posttest performance by the child. High level of instruction by both parents was related to better posttest performance than was low level of instruction by parents. Contributions of parents to their children's cognitive development are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spatial problem solving in a dual runway task by normal and septal rats.

On the Maier 3-table spatial integration task, the addition of a dual runway configuration did not disrupt the successful performance of 10 normal male Long-Evans hooded rats or improve the deficit of 10 Ss with septal lesions. Both groups displayed a preference for the outside runway configuration during exploration. During testing, however, septal-lesioned Ss retained this preference, whereas normal Ss attempted solution by using the inside runway configuration. This fact, in addition to the apparent lack of habituation during exploration, suggests that septal-lesioned Ss did not acquire a spatial representation of the test situation. It is suggested that the inability of septal-lesioned rats in spatial situations is due to an inability to form rather than to use spatial maps. The cognitive representation of a problem space is considered in relation to route complexity, response biases, and self-corrections. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The assessment of effectance motivation in normal and retarded children.

Constructed several measures of effectance motivation and assessed their validity by administering them to groups of Ss whose motivation was assumed to differ. 37 normal, 32 noninstitutionalized retarded, and 34 institutionalized retarded children matched on MA were employed. For the 4 components of effectance motivation investigated-variation seeking, curiosity, mastery for the sake of competence, and preference for challenging tasks-normals demonstrated more effectance motivation than did either retarded group. The measures also proved sensitive to differences between the noninstitutionalized and institutionalized retarded. Verbal inquiry data resulted in a pattern of findings parallel to that obtained with the task measures, providing further support for the validity of the measures. Measurement problems and the need for constructing adequate developmental indices of effectance motivation are emphasized. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental changes in concept utilization among normal and retarded children.

Examined the concepts employed by 100 normal children in kindergarten-Grade 4 (Study 1), and by 48 retarded vs 48 normal children matched for mental ages ranging from 5 to 11 yrs (Study 2). Ss were required to select pairs of pictures from a large array of pictures depicting common objects and to explain the basis for their pairing responses. Factor analysis of the conceptual responses of normal Ss revealed factors for abstraction (nominal and functional concepts as opposed to perceptible concepts) and complimentarity ("go together" responses as opposed to similarity responses). Retarded Ss differed from normals primarily in their use of more complimentary and fewer similarity concepts. The developmental course of concept utilization for normals was characterized as a change from perceptible to nominal and functional concepts, while that for retarded Ss was characterized as a change from complimentary to similarity concepts. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of collaborative problem solving among preschool children.

Identified the communication behaviors that enhanced collaborative problem solving in 3–5 yr olds. 32 dyads, matched by age, sex, and friendship, were videotaped as they used balance scales to locate matching pairs of blocks from sets that varied in weight and surface design, but not in size. Findings indicate major skill development in collaborative problem solving during the preschool years. Adequate vocabulary both for labeling objects and for relational concepts was the key to more successful collaboration. However, the vocabulary employed in such peer interaction did not always correspond to adult referential meanings: Children's use of "big" and "little," although the blocks were identical in size, facilitated successful solutions. Also productive were behaviors that enhanced attentiveness to cooperative interaction, including attention-focusing statements, questions, directives, and responsiveness to the partner. A developmental sequence of communication skills for responsive conversation, collaborative problem solving, tutoring, and persuasion is discussed. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Organizational patterns in problem solving among Mayan fathers and children.

This study examined the social organization of Guatemalan Mayan fathers' engagement with school-age children in a group problem-solving task. Twenty-nine groups of Mayan fathers varying in extent of Western schooling and 3 related school-age children (ages 6-12 years) constructed a puzzle together. Groups with fathers with 0 to 3 grades more often constructed the puzzle through shared multiparty collaboration involving a common agenda, whereas groups with fathers with 12 or more grades more often structured their contributions through a division of labor. Groups involving fathers with 6 to 9 grades demonstrated patterns of coordination that fell between the other two types of schooling groups. Fathers with greater schooling were also found to propose more explicit division-of-labor plans to children than were fathers with no to little schooling. The results indicate that Western schooling may be gradually transforming the collaborative social organization of group problem solving of indigenous Mayan families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schooling and traditional collaborative social organization of problem solving by Mayan mothers and children.

Traditional indigenous social organization in the Americas has been characterized as involving horizontal multiparty engagements, in contrast with schooling, which often relies on hierarchy and division of labor. This study examined whether the social organization of problem solving of Guatemalan Mayan indigenous mothers and children varied with the mothers' extent of experience with school. We observed 47 mothers as they constructed a puzzle with 3 children (ages 6-12 years). Mayan mothers with little schooling (0-2 grades) were involved more in horizontal, multiparty engagements, whereas Mayan mothers with extensive experience with schooling (12 or more grades) were involved more in hierarchical, division-of-labor engagements with the children. The results suggest that Western formal schooling contributes to the reshaping of traditional collaborative social organization among indigenous Mayan people. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conformity and problem solving.

Tests of problem solving, conformity, and intelligence were given to 77 women and 64 men introductory psychology students to investigate the possibility that conformity, a nonintellectual variable, contributes to the variability in achievement in problem solving. The results show a negative correlation between tendency to conform and achievement in problem solving when the influence of intelligence is statistically removed. 17 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Problem solving and diabetes regimen adherence by children and adolescents with IDDM in social pressure situations: a reflection of normal development

Investigated problem-solving ability and reported regimen adherence among children, early adolescents, and middle adolescents with IDDM in response to hypothetical social situations where a choice between diabetes regimen adherence and peer desires must be made. Sixty-seven 8- to 17-year-olds with IDDM from two distinct U.S. geographical areas participated. Results indicated that compared to children with IDDM, adolescents with IDDM had better problem-solving abilities in response to social pressure situations, possibly reflecting their greater cognitive maturity. However, adolescents were also more likely to choose behaviors that are less regimen adherent. Differences in levels of problem-solving ability and adherence between the two regional subsamples were also found. Similar developmental patterns were found in both groups, showing the robust nature of the observed age-related trend of decreasing adherence in social situations despite increasing problem-solving abilities. Findings were interpreted in the context of normal adolescent development. Results are conceptually important for those interested in the transaction between peer and social influences and adherence for children and adolescents with IDDM, as well as other health behaviors.