Advances towards the understanding of microbial communities in dark fermentation of enzymatic hydrolysates: Diversity,structure and hydrogen production performance

Microbial communities involved in hydrogen (H₂) production from enzymatic hydrolysates of agave bagasse were analyzed through 16S rRNA sequencing. Two types of reactor configurations and four different enzymatic hydrolysates were evaluated. Trickling bed reactors led to highly-diverse microbial communities, but low volumetric H₂ production rates (VHPR, maximum: 5.8 L H₂/L-d). On the contrary, well-controlled environments of continuous stirred-tank reactors favored the establishment of low diverse microbial communities composed by Clostridium-Sporolactobacillus leading to high-performance H₂-production (VHPR maximum: 13 L H₂/L-d). Cellulase-Viscozyme and Celluclast-Viscozyme hydrolysates led to the co-dominance of Clostridium and Sporolactobacillus, possibly due to the presence of xylose and hemicellulose-derived carbohydrates. Cellulase hydrolysates were linked to communities dominated by Clostridium, while maintaining low abundance of Sporolactobacillus. Stonezyme hydrolysates favored microbial communities co-dominated by Clostridium-Lachnoclostridium-Leuconostoc. Moreover, contrary to the prevailing theory, it was demonstrated that H₂ production performance was inversely related to microbial diversity.     

Coupling dark fermentation and microbial electrolysis to enhance bio-hydrogen production from agro-industrial wastewaters and by-products in a bio-refinery framework

The aim of this work is to evaluate biohydrogen production from agro-industrial wastewaters and by-products, by combining dark fermentation and microbial electrolysis in a two-step cascade process. Such coupling of both technologies constitutes a technological building block within a concept of environmental biorefinery where sustainable production of renewable energy is expected.Six different wastewaters and industrial by-products coming from cheese, fruit juice, paper, sugar, fruit processing and spirits factories were evaluated for the feasibility of hydrogen production in a two-step process. The overall hydrogen production when coupling dark fermentation and microbial electrolysis was increased up to 13 times when compared to fermentation alone, achieving a maximum overall hydrogen yield of 1608.6 ± 266.2 mLH₂/gCOD_consumed and a maximum of 78.5 ± 5.7% of COD removal.These results show that dark fermentation coupled with microbial electrolysis is a highly promising option to maximize the conversion of agro-industrial wastewaters and by-products into bio-hydrogen.     

Effects of pretreatment method of natural bacteria source on microbial community and bio-hydrogen production by dark fermentation

The effects of pretreatment method of cow dung compost, which was employed as natural hydrogen bacteria source, on the microbial community, population distribution of microbes and hydrogen production potential were investigated in the batch tests. The maximum hydrogen yield of 290.8 mL/L-culture appeared in the pretreated method A (infrared drying) by dark fermentation. The pretreated method of compost significantly affected microbial succession, population distribution of microbes. Both Clostridium sp. and Enterobacter sp. were found to be two species of preponderant hydrogen-producing bacteria, the next best was Bacteroides sp. and Veillonella sp., the last was Lactobacillus sp. and Streptococcus sp., which were also essential. The results showed that the mutualism and symbiosis relations of the mixed bacteria played a critical role in hydrogen fermentation process.     

Ultrasonic pretreatment of palm oil mill effluent: Impact on biohydrogen production,bioelectricity generation,and underlying microbial communities

Substrate bioavailabity is one of the critical factors that determine the relative biohydrogen (bioH₂) yield in fermentative hydrogen production and bioelectricity output in a microbial fuel cell (MFC). In the present undertaking, batch bioH₂ production and MFC-based biolectricity generation from ultrasonically pretreated palm oil mill effluent (POME) were investigated using heat-pretreated anaerobic sludge as seed inoculum. Maximum bioH₂ production (0.7 mmol H₂/g COD) and COD removal (65%) was achieved at pH 7, for POME which was ultrasonically pretreated at a dose of 195 J/mL. Maximum value for bioH₂ productivity and COD removal at this sonication dose was higher by 38% and 20%, respectively, than unsonicated treatments. In batch MFC experiments, the same ultrasound dose led to reduced lag-time in bioelectricity generation with concomitant 25% increase in bioelectricity output (18.3 W/m³) and an increase of COD removal from 30% to 54%, as compared to controls. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) tests on sludge samples from batch bioH₂ production reflected an abundance of gene fragments coding for both clostridial and thermoanaerobacterial [FeFe]-hydrogenase. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) tests on sludge from MFC experiments showed Clostridium spp. and Thermoanaerobacterium spp. as the dominant microflora. Results suggest the potential of ultrasonicated POME as sustainable feedstock for dark fermentation-based bioH₂ production and MFC-based bioelectricity generation.     

Homoacetogenesis during hydrogen production by mixed cultures dark fermentation: Unresolved challenge

This paper is a comprehensive review of H₂ consumption during anaerobic mixed culture H₂ dark fermentation with a focus on homoacetogenesis. Homoacetogenesis consumed from 11% to 43% of the H₂ yield in single and repeated batch fermentations, respectively. However, its quantification and extent during continuous fermentation are still not well understood. Models incorporating thermodynamic and kinetic controls are required to provide insight into the dynamic of homoacetogenesis during H₂ dark fermentation. Currently, no adequate method exists to eliminate homoacetogenesis because it does not depend on the culture's source, pre-treatment, substrate, type of reactor, or operation conditions. Controlling CO₂ concentrations during dark fermentation needs further investigation as a potential strategy towards controlling homoacetogenesis. Incorporating radioactive labeling technique in H₂ fermentation research could provide information on simultaneous production and consumption of H₂ during dark fermentation. Genetic studies investigating blocking H₂ consuming pathways and enhancing H₂ evolving hydrogenases are suggested towards controlling homoacetogenesis during dark fermentation.     

Influence of butyrate on fermentative hydrogen production and microbial community analysis

The effect of butyrate on hydrogen production and the potential mechanism were investigated by adding butyric acid into dark fermentative hydrogen production system at different concentrations at pH range of 5.5–7.0. The results showed that under all the tested pH from 5.5 to 7.0, the addition of butyric acid can inhibit the hydrogen production, and the inhibitory degree (from 10.5% to 100%) increased with the increase of butyric acid concentration and with the decrease of pH values, which suggested that the inhibition effect is highly associated with the concentration of undissociated acids. Substrate utilization rate and VFAs accumulation also decreased with the addition of butyric acid. The microbial community analysis revealed that butyrate addition can decrease the dominant position of hydrogen-producing microorganisms, such as Clostridium, and increase the proportion of other non-hydrogen-producing bacteria, including Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, Acinetobacter, and Bacillus.     

Enhanced hydrogen production in a UASB reactor by retaining microbial consortium onto carbon nanotubes (CNTs)

Biohydrogen and subsequent biomethane generation from biomass is a promising strategy for renewable energy supply, because this combination can lead to higher energy recovery efficiency and faster fermentation than single methane fermentation. Microbial consortium control by retaining hydrogen-producers through the addition of microbial carriers is an alternative to constructing hydrogen-producing reactors. Here we report the use of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as microbial carriers to enhance microbial retention and the production of biohydrogen. Laboratory-scale upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactors with CNTs at 100 mg/L achieved a maximal hydrogen production rate of 5.55 L/L/d and a maximal hydrogen yield of 2.45 mol/mol glucose. Compared to frequently used activated carbon (AC) particles, CNTs resulted in quicker startup and better performance of hydrogen fermentation in UASB reactors. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and pyrosequencing results revealed that the reactor with CNTs led to a high proportion of hydrogen-producing bacteria among the microbial consortium, which endowed the microbes with strong flocculation capacity and hydrogen productivity.     

Silage as source of bacteria and electrons for dark fermentative hydrogen production

In this study, grass silage was used both as a source of bacteria and as a substrate for dark fermentative hydrogen production. Silage is produced by lactic acid fermentation controlled by end point pH (<4.0). In this study, the fermentation of silage was successfully continued and directed to hydrogen production by neutralizing the pH. Highest hydrogen yield of 37.8 ± 5.8 mL H₂/g silage was obtained at 25 g/L of silage. The main soluble metabolites were acetate and butyrate with the final concentrations of 1.5 ± 0.2 and 0.5 ± 0.0 g/L, respectively. Bacteria present (at 25 g silage/L) included Ruminobacillus xylanolyticum, Acetanaerobacterium elongatum and Clostridium populeti and were involved in silage fermentation to hydrogen. In summary, this work demonstrates that grass silage becomes amenable to hydrogen fermentation by indigenous silage bacteria through pH neutralization.     

Microbial ecology of a lactate-driven dark fermentation process producing hydrogen under carbohydrate-limiting conditions

Despite the high prevalence of lactic acid bacteria in dark fermentation (DF) processes, their ecological role is not yet completely elucidated, preventing their systematic use as “helpers” for hydrogen production. The aim of this study was to investigate the microbial community structure of a lactate-driven DF process that successfully produced hydrogen under carbohydrate-limiting conditions using tequila vinasse as a substrate. Microbial responses to stepwise decreases in hydraulic retention time (HRT) from 24 to 4 h were assessed by using Illumina MiSeq sequencing. HRTs above 12 h and below 6 h led to a lower hydrogen production rate (HPR; 0.2–3.3 L/L-d) and process stability (HPR variations within 25–65%), which were associated with the presence of Acetobacter lovaniensis, Clostridium luticellari, Blautia coccoides, and the high abundance of propionate and lactate. Interestingly, transient conditions from unsteady-to-steady state occurred at an HRT of 12 h, where species richness and evenness decreased remarkably. Accordingly, HRTs between 12 and 6 h resulted in higher HPRs of up to 11.7 ± 0.7 L/L-d with HPR variations of less than 10%, which closely matched with the dominance of Clostridium sp., and butyrate and acetate as the main aqueous products. Overall, the results indicate that the successfulness of exploiting the ‘unwanted’ LAB proliferation through lactate-driven DF processes requires the enrichment of lactate-consuming and hydrogen-producing bacteria, which entails the selection of proper biocatalysts and operating conditions/strategies such as the operation of DF reactors under carbohydrate-limiting conditions and low HRTs.     

Initial pH influences microbial communities composition in dark fermentation of scotta permeate

This study addresses for the first time the influence of initial pH on the evolution of microbial consortia in dark fermentation of scotta permeate, using a high-throughput sequencing approach. Three fermentation phases could be detected: 1) a lag phase with no substantial differences in microbial composition at different initial pH values; 2) an exponential H₂ production phase, accompanied by a general increase of Clostridium genus components and higher incidence of Trichococcus genus at neutral and alkaline pH; 3) a final stationary phase, characterized by a general increase of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus genera in all reactors. The initial pH value influenced the relative abundance of Trichococcus at 16–48 h of incubation. The metabolic activity of this genus increased the amount of metabolic precursors of H₂ so that, when pH lowered to 5.4, clostridia in the reactors with initial alkaline pH become more active H₂-producers than those in the others.     

Effect of inoculum pretreatment on the microbial community structure and its performance during dark fermentation using anaerobic fluidized-bed reactors

The effect of two different inoculum pretreatments, thermal and cell wash-out (A1 and A2, respectively) on the performance of anaerobic fluidized bed reactors for hydrogen production was determined. The reactors were operated for 112 days under the same operational conditions using glucose as substrate at increasing organic loading rates and decreasing hydraulic retention times. Both treatments were effective avoiding methanogenesis. Reactor A2 showed better performance and stability than reactor A1 in each one of the different operational conditions. Cell wash-out treatment produced higher hydrogen volumetric production rates and yields than thermal treatment (7 L H₂/L-d, 3.5 mol H₂/mol hexose, respectively). DGGE analysis revealed that the microbial communities developed were affected by the inoculum treatment. Organisms from the genera Clostridium and Lactobacillus predominated in both reactors, with their relative abundances linked to hydrogen production. Resilience was observed in both reactors after a period of starvation.     

Hydrogen productivity of photosynthetic bacteria on dark fermenter effluent of potato steam peels hydrolysate

Hydrogen productivities of different photosynthetic bacteria have been searched on real thermophilic dark fermentation effluents (DFE). The results obtained with potato steam peels hydrolysate (PSP) DFE were compared to glucose DFE. Photobiological hydrogen production has been carried out in indoor, batch photobioreactors using several strains of purple non-sulfur (PNS) bacteria such as Rhodobacter capsulatus (DSM1710), Rhodobacter capsulatus hup- (YO3), Rhodobacter sphaeroides O.U.001 (DSM5864), Rb. sphaeroides O.U.001 hup- and Rhodopseudomonas palustris.The efficiency of photofermentation depends highly on the composition of the effluent and the PNS bacterial strain used. Rb. sphaeroides produced the highest amount of hydrogen on glucose DFE. Rb. capsulatus gave better results on PSP DFE. This study demonstrates that photobiological hydrogen production with high efficiency and productivity is possible on thermophilic dark fermentation effluents. Consequently, a sequential operation of dark fermentation and photofermentation is a promising route to produce hydrogen, and it provides a higher hydrogen yield compared to single step processes.     

Predictive functional profiling of microbial communities in fermentative hydrogen production system using PICRUSt

PICRUSt (phylogenetic investigation of communities by reconstruction of unobserved states) is based on 16S rRNA sequencing data, which can analyze the microbial functions in fermentation system. In this study, PICRUSt was adopted to figure out the direct evidence of functions of the microbial community in biohydrogen production system. PICRUSt analysis demonstrated that metabolic flux shifted from acid-producing pathway to hydrogen-producing pathway, and the hydrogen-consuming homoacetogenic pathway was eliminated by ionizing radiation pretreatment at 5 kGy. KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) based functional genes analysis showed enriched energy metabolism and diminished homoaceto gene, which enhanced the hydrogen production. However, the diminished carbohydrate metabolism indicated that the pretreatment reduced the activity of microbial consortia to degrade various substrates. This study suggested that PICRUSt is an effective approach to analyze the functional profiling of microbial community in fermentative hydrogen production system.     

Pretreating mixed anaerobic communities from different sources: Correlating the hydrogen yield with hydrogenase activity and microbial diversity

In this study, granular and flocculated anaerobic mixed cultures were pretreated using heat, shock loading, acid, alkali, linoleic acid (LA) and 2-bromoethane sulphonic acid (BESA). Under mesophilic conditions (37 °C) and an initial pH value of 6.0, higher H₂ yields were observed for the flocculated cultures when compared to the granular cultures. The maximum yield for granular cultures treated acid, BESA or LA were statistically the same. Butyric acid fermentation was dominant in a majority of the treated cultures. The maximum hydrogenase evolution specific activity (ESA) (124 ± 8 U_e mg VSS⁻¹) at 37 °C correlated with the maximum H₂ yield for the LA treated flocculated cultures (1.69 ± 0.18 mol mol⁻¹ glucose). The microbial diversity data clearly showed that the low H₂ yield in the granular cultures was due to the lower proportion of H₂ producers. A principle component analysis (PCA) revealed that the LA treated flocculated and granular cultures were grouped together and showed more diversity in comparison to other pretreatment methods.     

Novel resolution-contrast method employed for investigating electron transfer mechanism of the mixed bacteria microbial fuel cell

Due to the synergy existing in mixed bacteria, electricity-generation performances of the mixed bacteria microbial fuel cell (m-MFC) are better than that of the pure bacteria microbial fuel cell (p-MFC). It is necessary to explore the electron transfer mechanisms of the m-MFC to further improve electricity generation. In this study, a facile “resolution-contrast” method was employed in the two-chamber m-MFC to investigate the electron transfer mechanism using mixed bacteria as the anodic inoculums. The anode was wrapped with a mixed cellulose esters membrane to eliminate the effects of direct extracellular electron transport, while the mediator electron transport was investigated by electrochemical methods. The results showed that both transfer methods existed simultaneously in the m-MFC. The main exoelectrogens were Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Brevundimonas diminuta, and the main redox mediators included 1-hydroxyanthracene-9,10-dione, phenazine-1-carboxylic acid and 2,4-diacetyl phloroglucinol.     

Insights into evolutionary trends in molecular biology tools in microbial screening for biohydrogen production through dark fermentation

Access to clean energy is vital to combat global warming and climate change, and nothing but hydrogen could better deliver it with ease to secure future energy needs. Biohydrogen could be produced in different routes including photolysis, water-gas shift reaction, dark, photo-fermentation and combination of both. Dark fermentative hydrogen production (DFHP) is efficient in comparison with photo-fermentation and utilizing organic waste ensures land usage and water for agriculture. Several microbes are involved in the process of biohydrogen production via dark fermentation and characterizing them at molecular level unveils holistic approach and understanding. Limited resources were available in terms of molecular tools for microbial characterization and this paper attempts to review the evolution of advanced molecular techniques including their merits and demerits. Understanding the composition of micro-flora is important in DFHP and could be classified as pure, co-cultures, enriched mixed cultures and mixed microbiota. These cultures act as seed sources for batch and continuous fermentations that help in understanding the efficiency of these methods. The schematics and systematic assessment of the various molecular tools (cloning, PCR-DGGE, FISH, NGS, CE-SSCP) for quantification, identification, detection and characterization of the microbial cell activity have been elaborated. Lastly, a comparative tabulation recapitulates the merits and drawbacks of each technique discussed. This provides valued information for choosing the right kind of microbial and molecular assessment tool for future characterization. Such analysis aids in suitable identification and characterization of microflora as potential biocatalysts for biohydrogen production through dark fermentation.     

Start-up study of biohydrogen production from palm oil mill effluent in a lab-scale up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket fixed-film reactor

A start-up study of lab-scale up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket fixed-film reactor (UASFF) was conducted to produce biohydrogen from palm oil mill effluent (POME). The reactor was fed with POME at different hydraulic retention time (HRT) and organic loading rate (OLR) to obtain the optimum fermentation time for maximum hydrogen yield (HY). The results showed the HY, volumetric hydrogen production rate (VHPR), and COD removal of 0.5–1.1 L H₂/g COD_consumed, 1.98–4.1 L H₂ L^?1 day^?1, and 33.4–38.5%, respectively. The characteristic study on POME particles was analyzed by particle size distribution (PSD), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The microbial Shannon and Simpson diversity indices and Principal Component Analysis assessed the alpha and beta diversity, respectively. The results indicated the change of bacterial community diversity over the operation, in which Clostridium sensu stricto 1 and Lactobacillus species were contributed to hydrogen fermentation.     

Hydrogen production by mixed bacteria through dark and photo fermentation

Mixed bacteria were used to improve hydrogen yield from cassava starch in combination of dark and photo fermentation. In dark fermentation, mixed anaerobic bacteria (mainly Clostridium species) were used to produce hydrogen from cassava starch. Substrate concentration, fermentation temperature and pH were optimized as 10.4 g/l, 31 °C and 6.3 by response surface methodology (RSM). The maximum hydrogen yield and production rate in dark fermentation were 351 ml H₂/g starch (2.53 mol H₂/mol hexose) and 334.8 ml H₂/l/h, respectively. In photo fermentation, immobilized mixed photosynthetic bacteria (PSB, mainly Rhodopseudomonaspalustris species) were used to produce hydrogen from soluble metabolite products (SMP, mainly acetate and butyrate) of dark fermentation. The maximum hydrogen yield in photo fermentation was 489 ml H₂/g starch (3.54 mol H₂/mol hexose). The total hydrogen yield was significantly increased from 402 to 840 ml H₂/g starch (from 2.91 to 6.07 mol H₂/mol hexose) by mixed bacteria and cell immobilization in combination of dark and photo fermentation.