Structural performance of composite sandwich bridge decks with hybrid GFRP–steel core

This paper presents the static and fatigue performance of composite sandwich bridge decks with hybrid GFRP–steel core. The composite sandwich bridge deck system is comprised of wrapped hybrid core of GFRP grid and multiple steel box cells with upper and lower GFRP facings. Its structural performance under static loading and fatigue loading with a nominal frequency of 5 Hz was evaluated. The responses from laboratory testing were compared with the ANSYS finite element predictions. The failure mode of the proposed composite sandwich bridge deck was more favourable because of the yielding of the steel tube when compared with that of all-GFRP decks. The ultimate failure of the composite sandwich deck panels occurs by shear of the bonded joints between GFRP facings and steel box cells. Results from fatigue load test indicated no loss in stiffness, no signs of de-bonding and no visible signs of deterioration up to 2 million load cycles. The thickness of the composite sandwich deck retaining the similar stiffness may be decreased to some extent when compared with the all-GFRP deck. This paper also presents design of a connection between composite sandwich deck and steel girder.     

Fatigue analysis of concrete bridge deck slabs reinforced with E-glass/vinyl ester FRP reinforcing bars

FRP composites have been widely used as internal reinforcement for concrete bridge deck slabs. However, experimental researches on the behavior of such FRP-reinforced elements in general have been limited, especially those on fatigue performance. This research is designed to investigate the fatigue behavior of concrete bridge deck slabs reinforced with GFRP bars. A total of six full-size deck slabs were constructed and tested under concentrated cyclic loading conditions. Different reinforcement types, ratios, and configurations were used. Also, different schemes of cyclic loading were applied till failure. Finite element modeling was used to investigate the effect of different parameters on the ultimate static capacity. The results showed the superior fatigue performance and longer fatigue life of concrete bridge deck slabs reinforced with GFRP composite bars compared to the steel reinforced ones.     

Fatigue behaviour of concrete bridge deck slabs reinforced with GFRP bars

GFRP bars are often used for the internal reinforcement of concrete bridge deck slabs as an alternative to traditional steel reinforcements with excellent results in terms of corrosion resistance. Several experiments on bridge decks were conducted to evaluate their structural behaviour but their fatigue performance still needs an adequate experimental investigation. This paper presents the results of an experimental campaign on four full scale concrete bridge deck specimens reinforced with GFRP bars that were designed, constructed and tested to resist cyclic moving loads. Two hydraulic jacks were used to simulate moving concentrated loads. After the cycles, the load was increased to the static failure. The slabs reinforced with GFRP bars showed a better fatigue performance compared to the requests of the European codes.     

Flexural fatigue analysis of a CFRP form reinforced concrete bridge deck

Concrete bridge decks reinforced with fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite panels have recently been used where the FRP panels also serve as the permanent formwork for concrete. Comparing to their short-term behavior, their long-term performance especially under repeated traffic loads (fatigue) has not yet been widely known. This paper presents a fatigue analysis tool developed for a new steel-free concrete bridge deck reinforced with carbon FRP stay-in-place form. The developed model takes into account the cyclic creep of concrete in compression, the reduction in flexural stiffness due to fatigue tensile cracking and the reduction in modulus of rupture under cyclic loading. Comparisons with experimental data show reasonable agreement where a full-size 2-span deck specimen was subjected to millions of fatigue cycles. The parametric study recommends reducing the amount of FRP reinforcement and concrete strength of the current design, and lower loading rate may introduce more stiffness degradation in the system.     

Integrated high-performance thousand-metre scale cable-stayed bridge with hybrid FRP cables

To overcome the limitations of conventional steel stay cables in a thousand-meter scale cable-stayed bridge, hybrid basalt and carbon (B/C) FRP cables were investigated to achieve integrated high performances in the bridge of this scale as a replacement for steel cables. First, the material properties of different cables were discussed, and static and dynamic analyses on the entire bridges with different cables were conducted by means of finite element method. Moreover, the aerodynamic stability of different cables was studied in terms of the Scruton number. Results show that (1) hybrid B/CFRP with a 28% volume proportion of carbon fibres exhibits relatively high stiffness, economical cost, a small sag effect and sufficient fatigue resistance, which was proven suitable for stay cables; (2) based on the stiffness principle, the cable-stayed bridge with hybrid B/CFRP cables exhibits linear L–D behaviour and higher stiffness compared to the bridge with steel cables under the static load, and this advantage would become more apparent with the elongation of span; (3) the hybrid B/CFRP cable processes much higher natural frequencies than steel cables, which could lower the possibility of resonance between stay cables and the bridge deck. Furthermore, the aerodynamic stability of hybrid B/CFRP cables is superior to other cables due to its designable inherent damping.     

Ultimate strength of a GFRP deck panel for temporary structures

To overcome the steel corrosion and fatigue problems of conventional steel deck panels, a reusable glass-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) deck panel has been developed for temporary structures. This paper deals with a series of full-scale tests conducted to experimentally validate the structural performance of the GFRP deck panel. The test program consists of a failure test under quasi-static loading and a fatigue test under cyclic loading. The results of the tests indicate that the GFRP deck panel satisfies both the strength and service design limits.     

Fatigue behaviour of asphalt concrete beams reinforced by glass fibre-reinforced plastics

The aim of this study was to evaluate the enhancement effect of asphalt concrete beams reinforced by glass fibre-reinforced plastics (GFRP). First, the Cooper fatigue test machine was used to conduct the four-point bending fatigue tests. The test results showed that the mean fatigue life of hot mixture asphalt (HMA) beams had been extended to more than 8.81 times with 3-mm thick GFRP sheets pasted on the top. Second, the stress and strian behaviour of the four-point bending fatigue test specimen was simulated by the finite element method. The results showed that flexural stiffness of HMA beams had increased significantly with GFRP sheets pasted on the top. Finally, the fatigue failure process of the HMA beam with GFRP sheet pasted on the top was predicted by the theory of damage mechanics. The predicted results matched well with those obtained in the fatigue tests.Therefore, pasting a GFRP sheet of a certain thickness on a steel bridge deck could greatly improve the overall stiffness of the pavement layer and form a kind of durable steel bridge deck surfacing structure. The research results had important theoretical significance and value in engineering applications.     

Experimental study of FRP-strengthened RC bridge girders subjected to fatigue loading

The practical application of composite materials for retrofitting of reinforced concrete bridge T-sectional girders was investigated. Carbon and glass fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRP and GFRP) saturated in an epoxy resin matrix were used to enhance the service load-carrying capacity of the bridge. Three 5-m-long simply supported beams were tested under monotonic and cyclic loads for comparison to a beam subjected to more than 10⁶ cycles in the service load range. The results show that an FRP-strengthened T-beam subjected to fatigue loading demonstrated excellent behaviour that can be expected from well-detailed retrofit schemes incorporating carbon and glass fibre laminates.     

Experimental studies on multicellular GFRP bridge deck panels under static and fatigue loading

This paper presents the experimental investigations carried out on hand lay-up prototype multicellular glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite bridge deck panels under static and fatigue loading. Various sustainability aspects with regard to GFRP structural members were discussed. The aspects include (i) social development; (ii) environmental protection; and (iii) economic development. The GFRP material properties were evaluated by using (i) micromechanics; (ii) simplified composite micromechanics equations (Chamis); (iii) carpet plots; and (iv) equations proposed by Tsai–Hahn. GFRP members with various cross sections were tested to decide the better performance under flexural loading and found that GFRP with hollow section performs better. For the optimised cross-section dimensions, six multi-cellular GFRP composite bridge deck panels of size 1250 mm × 333 mm × 150 mm (l × b × d) were fabricated by hand lay-up process and tested for static and fatigue loading. It was observed from the experiment that during testing the bridge deck panel, no load shedding was observed even though the resin started cracking. At ultimate load, there was a loud cracking sound and the specimen load shedding occurred suddenly. Factor of safety for load and deflection was computed. From the fatigue experiments, it is observed that the percentage reduction in stiffness is approximately 12% for 500,000 cycles.     

Static and fatigue load performance of a gfrp honeycomb bridge deck

This paper investigates the performance of a glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) bridge deck under static and fatigue load cycles. The bridge deck has a sandwich panel configuration, consisting of two stiff face shells separated by a light-weight honeycomb core. The deck was manufactured using a hand lay-up technique. In this study, a full-size panel that had the same design as an actual bridge deck was tested. The experimental data are analyzed and compared to the results of finite element analysis. The data obtained have indicated that the failure of the system is governed by the delamination of the face shells from the honeycomb core, and the failure behavior is pseudo-ductile even though the material itself is brittle. Hence, the design of such a deck panel should be based on the shear strength of the face–core interface. However, the shear strength can depend significantly on the workmanship in the fabrication process. For design, if the interface shear strength can be reliably identified, the maximum shear stress should be no greater than 15% of the shear strength to avoid fatigue damage under the service load condition.     

Behavior of full-scale reinforced concrete beams retrofitted for shear and flexural with FRP laminates

Four full-scale reinforced concrete beams were replicated from an existing bridge. The original beams were substantially deficient in shear strength, particularly for projected increase of traffic loads. Of the four replicate beams, one served as a control and the remaining three were implemented with varying configurations of carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) and glass FRP (GFRP) composites to simulate the retrofit of the existing structure. CFRP unidirectional sheets were placed to increase flexural capacity and GFRP unidirectional sheets were utilized to mitigate shear failure. Four-point bending tests were conducted. Load, deflection and strain data were collected. Fiber optic gauges were utilized in high flexural and shear regions and conventional resistive gauges were placed in eighteen locations to provide behavioral understanding of the composite material strengthening. Fiber optic readings were compared to conventional gauges.Results from this study show that the use of fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) composites for structural strengthening provides significant static capacity increases approximately 150% when compared to unstrengthened sections. Load at first crack and post cracking stiffness of all beams was increased primarily due to flexural CFRP. Test results suggest that beams retrofit with both the designed GFRP and CFRP should well exceed the static demand of 658 kN m sustaining up to 868 kN m applied moment. The addition of GFRP alone for shear was sufficient to offset the lack of steel stirrups and allow conventional RC beam failure by yielding of the tension steel. This allowed ultimate deflections to be 200% higher than the pre-existing shear deficient beam. If bridge beams were retrofit with only the designed CFRP failure would still result from diagonal tension cracks, albeit at a 31% greater load. Beams retrofit with only the designed shear GFRP would fail in flexure at the mid-span at an equivalent 31% gain over the control specimen, failing mechanism in this case being yielding of the tension steel. Successful monitoring of strain using fiber optics was achieved. However, careful planning tempered by engineering judgement is necessary as the location and gauge length of the fiber optic gauge will determine the usefulness of the collected data.     

Glass fiber-reinforced polymer/steel hybrid honeycomb sandwich concept for bridge deck applications

Glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) bridge decks possess inherently high strength-to-weight ratios, but relatively low effective elastic moduli. As a result, serviceability issues govern GFRP bridge deck design. Therefore, the objective of this study was to increase the stiffness of a commercial GFRP honeycomb sandwich panel through the inclusion of steel within the cross section.     

High temperature effects on concrete members reinforced with GFRP rebars

GFRP rebars are often used for the internal reinforcement of concrete structures, such as bridge deck slabs, to improve the corrosion resistance. Several studies were conducted to evaluate the static and fatigue behaviour of these elements but the fire resistance still needs further investigation. This paper presents an experimental investigation aimed at understanding the static behaviour of concrete beams reinforced with GFRP rebars exposed to localized elevated temperatures. Two parameters were varied: the maximum temperature imposed on the bottom side of the specimens (230 °C and 550 °C) and the lapping scheme of the rebars, including rebars with hooks and laps of different lengths. The mechanical response was investigated by quasi-static three-points bending tests at room temperature and after heating. The results show that the geometry of the reinforcement has a more relevant influence on the ultimate load than on the initial stiffness of the specimens. The localized heating temperature generates damage in concrete and partial evaporation of the matrix in the GFRP rebars without causing the collapse of the element. The reduction of the load carrying capacity mainly depends on the reinforcement geometry in the overlapping areas.     

Early-age restrained shrinkage cracking of GFRP-RC bridge deck slabs: Effect of environmental conditions

Most of codes and guidelines for glass fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP) - Reinforced Concrete (RC) are based on modifying corresponding formulas, originally developed for steel bars, taking into account the differences in properties and behavior between FRP and steel. The main objective of this research is to investigate the effect of cyclic environments on early-age cracking of GFRP-RC bridge deck slabs experimentally. Two full-scale (measuring 2500-mm long × 765-mm wide × 180-mm thick) cast-in-place slabs reinforced with similar amounts of reinforcement ratio of 0.7% with GFRP and steel bars, respectively, were tested in adiabatic laboratory conditions as control specimens. In comparison, two other GFRP-RC deck slabs were tested under freezing–thawing and wetting–drying conditions. The test results are presented in terms of materials degradation, cracking pattern, crack width, and spacing, and strains in reinforcement and concrete. Test results indicate that the minimum reinforcement ratio (0.7%) recommended by the Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code 2006 (CHBDC 2006) for bridge deck slabs reinforced with GFRP bars satisfied the serviceability requirements after being subjected to the simulated cyclic exposures.     

循环荷载作用对CFRP筋力学性能的影响

应用于桥梁工程的碳纤维增强复合材料（CFRP）筋通常受循环荷载作用,导致其力学性能的退化,这将影响桥梁结构的受力。为了考察循环荷载作用对CFRP筋力学性能的影响,首先利用静载试验对CFRP筋的初始力学性能进行了检测,然后结合静载试验结果并利用疲劳试验考察了各阶段循环荷载作用对CFRP筋弹性模量、松弛及抗拉强度的影响。研究结果表明,极限拉力作用下CFRP筋的弹性模量较初始状态高约5%,对于CFRP筋构件的变形对结构内力有较大影响的结构,在设计阶段建议适当地考虑CFRP材料的非线性问题;桥梁工程中,经200万次正常使用设计循环荷载作用的CFRP筋,其弹性模量和松弛性能较初始状态未发生明显退化,经应力幅为4.3%的极限抗拉强度的循环荷载作用后,CFRP筋的抗拉强度提高了1.2%,但应力幅提高至7%的极限抗拉强度时,其抗拉强度与初始状态相比无明显变化。     

Structural limits of FRP-balsa sandwich decks in bridge construction

The span limits of two glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) bridge concepts involving GFRP-balsa sandwich plates are discussed. The sandwich plates were either used directly as slab bridges or as decks of a hybrid sandwich-steel girder bridges. In the latter case, the potential of the sandwich decks to replace reinforced concrete (RC) decks was also evaluated. Taking the limits of manufacturing into account (800 mm slab thickness), maximum bridge spans of approximately 19 m can be reached with FRP-balsa sandwich slab bridges, if a carbon-FRP (CFRP) arch is integrated into the balsa core. Above this limit, hybrid sandwich-steel girder bridges can be used up to spans of 30 m. RC deck replacement requires timber and steel plate inserts into the balsa core above the steel girders. GFRP-balsa sandwich slabs or decks exhibit full composite action between lower and upper face sheets. Stress concentrations occur at the joints between balsa core and timber inserts which however can effectively be reduced by changing from butt to scarf joints.     

An experimental study on fatigue characteristics of CFRP-steel hybrid laminates

This paper aims to investigate the fatigue characteristics of hybrid laminates consisting of wave carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets and a thin stainless steel plate under the tension–tension loading. Different loading options (e.g. same stress and same force), layers of CFRP sheets, and lay-ups of laminates (single and double sides) were considered. A series of experimental tests were performed to determine the effectiveness of the CFRP bonding on prolonging fatigue crack initiation life, preventing fatigue crack propagation and extending fatigue life of the hybrid laminates. Three distinct failure modes, classified as delamination, delamination bending and fiber breakage, were observed in the tests. It is shown that the loading conditions and CFRP thickness are the critical parameters affecting the failure modes and fatigue resistance. The crack initiation life and fatigue life of fiber-metal laminates (FMLs) increase by factors ranging from 1.06 to 1.96 and 1.17 to 2.07, respectively, relative to monolithic steel plates under the same force condition; whereas decrease by factors ranging from 0.63 to 0.89 and 0.28 to 0.61 under the same stress condition. Moreover, the double-side bonded FMLs show better fatigue properties and more stable crack propagation than single-side counterpart with the same thickness of CFRP.     

Behaviour of hybrid FRP–UHPC beams subjected to static flexural loading

This paper provides the experimental results of a new hybrid beam intended for use in bridge applications. The hybrid beams were made up of pultruded Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) hollow box section beams strengthened with a layer of Ultra-High-Performance-Concrete (UHPC) on top and either a sheet of Carbon FRP (CFRP) or Steel FRP (SFRP) on the bottom of the beam. Four hybrid FRP–UHPC beams were tested along with one control GFRP hollow box beam under four-point static flexural loading. Two types of beams were tested (Phase I and Phase II), which incorporated different connection mechanisms at the GFRP–UHPC interface. It was concluded that the hybrid beams had higher flexural strength and stiffness than the control beam, where the beams reinforced with SFRP showed greater percent cost effectiveness than beams reinforced with CFRP. In addition, the improved connection mechanism used in Phase II beams was found to provide adequate interface bond strength to maintain full composite action until ultimate failure.     

纵肋与横隔板交叉构造细节穿透型疲劳裂纹扩展特性及其加固方法研究

纵肋与横隔板交叉构造细节是正交异性钢桥面板最易发生疲劳开裂的构造细节,通过建立有限元数值模型,采用断裂力学方法,研究栓接角钢加固方式对该处疲劳易损细节穿透型裂纹的加固效果。基于疲劳试验足尺节段模型相对应有限元模型,建立了纵肋与横隔板焊接处穿透型疲劳裂纹模型,针对栓接角钢和纵肋外侧栓接钢板两种加固技术的加固效果进行评估。研究结果表明:钢桥面板纵肋与横隔板交叉构造细节的疲劳裂纹扩展至一定长度后将发展成穿透型裂纹,裂纹面受力复杂,纵肋腹板内外侧疲劳裂纹扩展特性表现的不一样,但是随着裂纹扩展的逐步进行,裂纹尖端的开裂模式均以复合型开裂为主;栓接角钢加固方式主要抑制纵肋与横隔板交叉构造细节易损部位疲劳裂纹的I型开裂,因此能很好地抑制短裂纹的扩展,但对于该细节处以复合形式扩展的穿透型疲劳裂纹的加固效果并不显著;在纵肋外侧栓接半U形钢板的加固方法能有效改善穿透型疲劳裂纹的等效应力强度因子,并且加固之后均保持在裂纹扩展阈值以下,表明该加固方式对穿透型疲劳裂纹有良好加固效果。     

CFRP板加固含裂纹受拉钢板的疲劳性能研究

根据线弹性断裂力学理论,采用“三维块体-弹簧-板”有限元模型对裂纹尖端的应力强度因子幅值进行计算,并基于Paris-Erdogan裂纹扩展模型,提出了CFRP板加固含裂纹受拉钢板的疲劳寿命预测方法。然后对4个CFRP板加固含初始疲劳裂纹钢板的受拉疲劳性能进行了试验研究,考察了碳纤维板加固量、单面和双面加固方式对疲劳性能的影响。试验结果表明,CFRP板加固钢板的疲劳寿命比未加固钢板显著提高,疲劳裂纹扩展的试验结果与预测结果符合较好。