Cadmium in cephalopod molluscs: implications for public health

Cadmium concentrations were measured in the flesh and hepatopancreas (digestive gland) of 1,392 specimens of different species of cephalopod molluscs (broadtail squid, spider octopus, curled octopus, horned octopus, elegant cuttlefish, and pink cuttlefish) to determine whether maximum levels fixed by the European Commission were exceeded. In all species, mean cadmium concentrations were higher in hepatopancreas than in flesh. Large differences among the different species were also observed. Pink cuttlefish and spider octopus had the highest concentrations for both flesh (spider octopus, 0.77 microg g(-1); pink cuttlefish, 0.87 microg g(-1)) and hepatopancreas (spider octopus, 9.65 microg g(-1); pink cuttlefish, 18.03 microg g(-1)), and the lowest concentrations were encountered in broadtail squid (flesh, 0.13 microg g(-1); hepatopancreas, 2.48 microg g(-1)). The other species had intermediate concentrations of 0.20 to 0.30 microg g(-1) in flesh and 5.46 to 8.01 microg g(-1) in hepatopancreas. Concentrations exceeding the limit proposed by the European Commission (1.00 microg g(-1)) were observed in 44.4 and 40.0% of flesh samples of spider octopus and pink cuttlefish, respectively. The estimated weekly intake, 0.09 to 0.66 microg/kg body weigh, was below the provisional tolerable weekly intake set by the World Health Organization.     

Content of mercury and cadmium in fish (Thunnus alalunga) and cephalopods (Eledone moschata) from the south-eastern Mediterranean Sea

Mercury and cadmium concentrations were measured in the flesh and liver (or hepatopancreas) of albacore (Thunnus alalunga) and horned octopus (Eledone moschata) to establish whether the concentrations exceeded the maximum levels fixed by the European Commission. In both species, mercury and cadmium mean concentrations were higher in liver (albacore: mercury = 2.41 μg g^-1 wet wt, cadmium = 9.22 μg g^-1 wet wt; horned octopus: mercury = 0.76 μg g^-1 wet wt, cadmium = 6.72 μg g^-1 wet wt) than in flesh (albacore: mercury = 1.56 μg g^-1 wet wt, cadmium = 0.05 μg g^-1 wet wt; horned octopus: mercury = 0.36 μg g^-1 wet wt, cadmium = 0.33 μg g^-1). Mercury concentrations exceeding the prescribed legal limit of 1 μg g^-1 wet wt were found in almost all albacore samples (flesh: 71.4%; liver: 85.7%). For horned octopus, concentrations above 0.5 μg g^-1 wet wt were observed solely in hepatopancreas, while in flesh, the concentrations were below this limit in all the samples examined. Of the flesh samples of albacore, 42.8% exceeded the proposed tolerance for cadmium for human consumption, whilst for horned octopus, the established limit was not exceeded in any sample.     

Cadmium and total mercury in some cephalopods from the South Adriatic Sea (Italy)

In the framework of a wide monitoring programme on the presence of heavy metals in marine organisms caught in the South Adriatic Sea, cadmium and total mercury concentrations were determined in flesh and hepatopancreas of 512 specimens of two species of cephalopods. The aim of the study was to establish the quality of the marine food with respect to the health of consumers and to investigate cadmium and mercury distribution in organisms representing different habitats. For both elements, higher levels were found in spider octopus (Octopus salutii) than in broadtail squid (Illex coindeti). Between the two different tissues analysed, higher concentrations were observed in hepatopancreas than flesh. According to the rules in force, no flesh sample showed cadmium and total mercury concentrations exceeding the peak permitted values of 2mg/kgwetwt and 0.5mg/kgwetwt respectively.     

Estimate of mercury and methyl mercury intake associated with fish consumption from Sagua la Grande River,Cuba

This paper provides an estimate of the weekly intake of total mercury (THg) and methyl mercury (MeHg) from consumption of fish from the Sagua la Grande River, Villa Clara, Cuba, by determining the THg levels in different fish species. The levels varied between 0.143 and 0.484 μg g^?1 on a fresh weight basis. None of the analysed fish was found to have levels above the national and international regulatory levels, although THg levels over 0.2 μg g^?1, the threshold concentration established by the World Health Organization (WHO) for the consumption by vulnerable population groups, were found in 75% of samples. The MeHg level was found to be 84% of the THg content. A Food Frequency Survey was given to 127 townspeople to estimate river fish consumption. The weekly intake of MeHg was found to be greater than the value established by the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) in 50% of children, in 80% of pregnant women, and in 75% of women in childbearing age. These weekly intakes can represent an important risk to the population's health, especially for vulnerable groups.     

Total dietary intake of mercury in the Canary Islands,Spain

Estimating the risk associated with dietary intake of heavy metals by consumers is a vital and integral part of regulatory processes. The assessment of exposure to mercury shown in this paper has been performed by means of a study on the whole diet. Total mercury (Hg) levels were determined by cold vapour atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) in 420 samples of regularly consumed food and drink. The total Hg concentrations measured in the different groups of food ranged from non-detectable to 119 µg kg^?1 w/w. The fish group had the highest concentrations of total Hg. All groups of food with regulated Hg content showed levels that were lower than the legally set values. The food consumption data used in the analysis were taken from the latest nutritional survey made in the Canary Islands, Spain. The estimated total Hg intake of local population (5.7 µg/person day^?1) did not exceed the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) limit of 0.3 mg week^?1 of total mercury (43 µg/person day^?1) fixed by the Joint Food and Agricultural Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) Expert Committee on Food Additives. Fishery products contributed 96% of the total Hg intake. The mean Hg intake for each island in this archipelago, formed by seven, has also been calculated. Fuerteventura, Lanzarote and El Hierro are the islands with the highest level of Hg intake (7.0, 7,0 and 6.1 µg/person day^?1, respectively). La Palma Island, due to its low fish consumption, had the lowest level of Hg intake (4.5 µg/person day^?1), followed by La Gomera (5.4 µg/person day^?1), Tenerife (5.5 µg/person day^?1) and Gran Canaria (5.6 µg/person day^?1). A comparison has been made of the results obtained in this study with those found for other national and international communities.     

Cadmium intake of moose hunters in Finland from consumption of moose meat, liver and kidney

Although the average cadmium intake in Finland is about 10 μg day^-1, some risk groups can be identified. This study assessed cadmium intake from the consumption of moose meat, liver and kidneys by moose hunters. Consumption data from a postal questionnaire were combined with a representative database on moose cadmium concentrations. Cadmium intakes were calculated as point estimates for all respondents (n = 711), for those consuming moose meat, liver and/or kidneys, and for the highest decile of those. Probabilistic modelling using the Monte Carlo technique was used to simulate the distribution of dietary cadmium exposure. Of the respondents, 69% consumed moose liver and only 23% moose kidneys. The consumption of moose liver or kidneys significantly increased cadmium intake, whereas moose meat (median consumption 17 kg year^-1 person^-1) contributed only slightly (0.16 μg day^-1 person^-1) to the daily total cadmium intake. In the simulation, 10% of the moose hunters had an intake of > 8.76 μg day^-1 (14.6% of PTWI for a 60-kg person) from moose. Point estimates provided only a partial understanding of the potential exposure. Simulated distributions of intake were more useful in characterizing exposure. The study revealed that heavy users of moose organs have a relatively narrow safety margin from the levels of cadmium probably causing adverse health effects.     

Assessment of mercury and cadmium via seafood consumption in Italy: estimated dietary intake (EWI) and target hazard quotient (THQ)

Mercury (Hg) and cadmium (Cd) were quantified in fish, cephalopods and crustaceans from Italian supermarkets. Sample compliance with European dietary standards as well as human health risks according to provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) and the methodology of target hazard quotient (THQ) were evaluated. Both element levels were under European legal limits, except for some fish having Hg and Cd contents exceeding or equal to critical values. Estimated weekly intakes (Hg: fish = 0.07–1.44 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; cephalopods = 0.05–0.15 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; crustaceans = 0.04–0.08 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; and Cd: fish = 0.04–0.32 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; cephalopods = 0.07–0.27 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1; crustaceans = 0.05–0.11 µg kg^?1 bw week^–1) as well as THQ < 1 were within safe limits. Although there seems to be no important risks associated with seafood consumption, Hg exposure was in some cases close to safety margins and thus levels of this metal should be under frequent surveillance.     

Dietary exposure of Hong Kong secondary school students to total mercury and methylmercury from fish intake

Fish is the main source of dietary exposure to methylmercury (MeHg), which is a public health concern owing to its potential neurotoxicity. To evaluate the public health risk, this study estimated the total mercury (tHg) and MeHg exposure from fish intake in Hong Kong secondary school students. Median tHg and MeHg concentrations of 280 samples purchased from different commercial outlets (covering 89 species of whole fish and three types of canned tuna), together with the local food consumption data of secondary school students obtained by semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire in 2000, were used to estimate dietary exposure from fish intake for the average and high consumer (95th percentile exposure). For tHg, the median concentration was 63 µg kg^–1 (range 3–1370 µg kg^–1) and estimated exposures ranged 0.5–0.6 µg kg^–1 body weight (bw) week^–1 for an average consumer and 1.6–1.9 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1 for a high consumer. For MeHg, median concentration was 48 µg kg^–1 (range 3–1010 µg kg^–1) and estimated dietary exposures were 0.4–0.5 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1 for an average consumer and 1.2–1.4 µg kg^–1 bw week^–1 for a high consumer. These values are below the respective provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) established by the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The health risk is greater for high consumers since MeHg exposures may approach or exceed the PTWI when other dietary sources are taken into account.     

Cadmium and lead content in fresh and canned peas

Cadium and lead in raw, blanched and canned peas were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The daily intake of cadmium and lead from peas in Spain was evaluated. The cadmium content of the peas ranged from less than 0.004 to 0.015 μg^?1, whereas the lead content varied from 0.49 to 0.223 μg^?1. The concentraiton of both elements was compared at different stages of the process. Statistically significant differences were found in the lead levels as a function of size and the different stages of the canning process. The mena level of cadmium and lead (0.041 μgg^?1 and 0.092 μgg^?1 respectively) could account for a daily intake of 0.1 μg day^?1 for cadmium and 1.1 μg day^?1 for lead.     

Estimated intake of benzoic and sorbic acids in Denmark

The monitoring of food additives and recent dietary surveys carried out in Denmark have earlier been used to estimate the intake of sweeteners and nitrite in relation to acceptable daily intakes. The ubiquitous use of the preservatives benzoic and sorbic acids raises the question of the magnitude of the intake of these preservatives in relation to acceptable daily intakes. This area is explored in this paper. The content of benzoic and sorbic acids in all food groups, where they are allowed, was monitored in Denmark 17 times between 2001 and 2006 with a total of 1526 samples. Transgressions of maximum limits, illegal use or declaration faults were found in about 3% of samples. From repeated investigations on fat-based foods (salads and dressings), marmalade and stewed fruit, it is concluded that the amounts used in industry have been relatively stable throughout the whole period, although limited data for marmalade show some variation. Most foods in the categories soft drinks, dressings, fat-based salads, pickled herrings, and marmalade contain benzoic and sorbic acid, and sliced bread also contains in some cases sorbic acid. The median daily intake and intake distribution of benzoic and sorbic acids were calculated with data from the Danish National Survey of Dietary Habits and Physical Activity (age from 4 to 75 years) conducted in 2000–2004 with 5785 participants. The median intakes of both benzoic acid and sorbic acid are well below the acceptable daily intakes of 0–5 and 0–25 mg kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1 for benzoic and sorbic acid, respectively. However, the 90th percentile based on the average of the samples with a content of benzoic acid is higher than the acceptable daily intake for both men and women, with the highest value of 16 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 for both boys and girls in the 4–6-year-old age group. Based on the average of all samples, the 95th percentile is over the acceptable daily intake for men up to 34 years and for women up to 24 years, and the 90th percentile for men up to 18 years and for women up to 10 years. Soft drinks, salads and dressings are the main contributors to benzoic acid intake. The sorbic acid intake based on the average of all samples is well below the acceptable daily intake. However, for the intake based on the average of samples with content, the 95th percentile exceeds the acceptable daily intake. This is caused by the dominating contribution to the intake of sorbic acid from sliced bread, but since only seven out of 42 samples have added sorbic acid, the calculation based on the average of samples with content will exaggerate the intake. With a built-in safety factor of 100 in the acceptable daily intakes and judging from the literature, the high intakes of benzoic acid should not cause any concern for ill-effects. However, there must be a reason to reconsider the maximum limits especially for benzoic acid in soft drinks, dressings and salads and for sorbic acid in sliced bread.     

Cadmium in organs and tissues of horses slaughtered in Italy

The cadmium content of muscle, liver, kidney and blood samples from 62 horses slaughtered in Italy was investigated. Cadmium was determined by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS) after wet digestion of the samples. The mean and median contents of all samples were (on a fresh weight basis) 75 and 41 μgkg^-1 for muscle, 2.46 and 2.10 mgkg^-1 for liver, 20.0 and 13.5 mgkg^-1 for kidney. The cadmium level in blood samples was always below 6 μgl^-1. The cadmium concentrations in muscle, liver and kidney were found to be related to the life span of the specimens and increased with age. Females exhibited higher levels than males, but this difference was significant only in the case of muscle tissue. The geographical origin was recognized as the main factor influencing the cadmium content of the equine specimens analysed. The differences between horses coming from the three main breeding countries considered in this study (Poland, Lithuania, Hungary) were marked and statistically significant. The average intake of cadmium from equine meat was estimated for the general population and for population groups resident in areas with high consumption of this food item. While the cadmium intake from equine meat for the average consumer accounts for about 1% of the total cadmium intake estimated for Italy, in the latter case the enhanced consumption of equine muscle is often accompanied with the consumption of substantial quantities of equine liver and this may lead to high cadmium intakes.     

Consumption of bivalve molluscs in Italy: estimated intake of cadmium and lead.

Concentrations of cadmium and lead were determined in nine different species of mollusc bivalves (Modiolus barbatus, Venus verrucosa, Scapharca inaequivalvis, Tapes decussatus, Callista chione, Pecten jacobeus, Ensis siliqua, Venus gallina, Cardium tubercolata) collected from different coastal areas of the Adriatic Sea (north, middle and south Adriatic). The levels of cadmium and lead found in bivalves from the north Adriatic Sea were significantly (P < 0.001) higher than those detected in those from the middle and south Adriatic Sea. In some species of molluscan bivalves (M. barbatus and T. decussatus) from the north Adriatic Sea, concentrations of cadmium and lead exceeded the maximum limit (2 mg/kg w.w.) established by the Italian legislation. Weekly intakes were estimated and compared with the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) recommended by the FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives.     

Estimated dietary intake of nitrite and nitrate in Swedish children

This study examines the intake of nitrate and nitrite in Swedish children. Daily intake estimates were based on a nationwide food consumption survey (4-day food diary) and nitrite/nitrate content in various foodstuffs. The mean intake of nitrite from cured meat among 2259 children studied was 0.013, 0.010 and 0.007?mg?kg^?1?body?weight?day^?1 in age groups 4, 8–9 and 11–12 years, respectively. Among these age groups, three individuals (0.1% of the studied children) exceeded the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 0.07?mg?nitrite?kg^?1 body weight?day^?1. The mean intake of nitrate from vegetables, fruit, cured meat and water was 0.84, 0.68 and 0.45?mg?kg^?1 body weight?day^?1 for children aged 4, 8–9 and 11–12 years, respectively. No individual exceeded the ADI of 3.7?mg?nitrate?kg^?1 body weight?day^?1. However, when the total nitrite intake was estimated, including an estimated 5% endogenous conversion of nitrate to nitrite, approximately 12% of the 4-year-old children exceeded the nitrite ADI. Thus, the intake of nitrite in Swedish children may be a concern for young age groups when endogenous nitrite conversion is included in the intake estimates.     

Estimated dietary intake of nitrite and nitrate in Swedish children

This study examines the intake of nitrate and nitrite in Swedish children. Daily intake estimates were based on a nationwide food consumption survey (4-day food diary) and nitrite/nitrate content in various foodstuffs. The mean intake of nitrite from cured meat among 2259 children studied was 0.013, 0.010 and 0.007 mg kg(-1) body weight day(-1) in age groups 4, 8-9 and 11-12 years, respectively. Among these age groups, three individuals (0.1% of the studied children) exceeded the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 0.07 mg nitrite kg(-1) body weight day(-1). The mean intake of nitrate from vegetables, fruit, cured meat and water was 0.84, 0.68 and 0.45 mg kg(-1) body weight day(-1) for children aged 4, 8-9 and 11-12 years, respectively. No individual exceeded the ADI of 3.7 mg nitrate kg(-1) body weight day(-1). However, when the total nitrite intake was estimated, including an estimated 5% endogenous conversion of nitrate to nitrite, approximately 12% of the 4-year-old children exceeded the nitrite ADI. Thus, the intake of nitrite in Swedish children may be a concern for young age groups when endogenous nitrite conversion is included in the intake estimates.     

食品中镉的检测方法研究进展

本文综述了国内近年来食品中镉的检测技术和方法,主要包括火焰原子吸收光谱法、石墨炉原子吸收光谱法、原子荧光光谱法、分光光度法、示波极谱法、阳极溶出伏安法等。     

Cadmium intake and cadmium in the human kidney

The diet and cigarette smoking are the main sources of cadmium intake in people not occupationally exposed to cadmium. Using data gathered from the literature, it is shown that there is a statistically significant relationship between the average cadmium intake in various countries and the average kidney cadmium concentration in 40-60 year old people living in those countries. It is estimated that a regular dietary intake of cadmium of 175 micrograms/day would cause the concentration of cadmium in the renal cortex to reach the critical level in 50 years.     

Cadmium content in fresh and canned squid (Loligo opalescens) from the Pacific coastal waters of California (USA)

Cadmium (Cd) levels were determined in 70 samples of mantle tissue and 70 whole individual squid (Loligo opalescens; commercially known as California squid). Samples were collected from the coastal zones of California (USA) during the period 2007/2008. To further investigate consumer exposure to processed fishery products, cadmium concentration was also determined in 200 canned samples of squid. Cd concentrations in raw mantle were low, between 0.01 and 0.29 mg kg^?1 and below the tolerance limit of current regulations (1 mg kg^?1). Respective concentrations in whole individuals were significantly higher, ranging from 0.51 to 1.18 mg kg^?1, attributed to the presence of the visceral portion in whole squid samples. Cd concentrations varied in relation to age and sex of squid, indicating that several physiological factors may influence accumulation. Furthermore, canning of squid substantially enhanced Cd levels. Cd concentration ranged 0.17–0.67 mg kg^?1 in canned mantle tissue and 0.86–2.07 mg kg^?1 in canned whole squid samples, due to both concentration after canning and movement of the metal between different tissues. Several biological compounds, including metallothioneins, nucleic acids and enzymes, may affect Cd concentrations in commercial fishery products.     

Cadmium and lead in organically produced foodstuffs from the Greek market

Determinations of cadmium and lead content in a wide variety of organically produced foodstuffs available in the Greek market were carried out in the present study. The mean values detected ranged from non detectable to 53.4 ng g⁻¹ and 65.0 ng g⁻¹ for cadmium and lead, respectively. The highest cadmium concentrations were observed in the food categories of cereals (21.7 ng g⁻¹), followed by leafy vegetables (15.4 ng g⁻¹), whereas for lead the highest concentrations were found in leafy vegetables (33.4 ng g⁻¹), followed by pulses (21.4 ng g⁻¹) and alcoholic beverages (20.0 ng g⁻¹). The comparison of the two metals’ content in certified organically grown foodstuffs to that of conventional ones from the Greek market demonstrates that cadmium and lead concentrations are higher in conventional foodstuffs in a percentage equal to 64% and 61% of the products compared, respectively. The results also show that “uncertified” organic products contained far larger concentrations of cadmium and lead than either the certified organic or conventional foodstuffs. These results demonstrate that although the majority of certified organic products may have lower metal content, organic agriculture as such does not necessarily reduce the cadmium and lead content of organically cultivated products, unless additional provisions are observed.     

Lead,cadmium and mercury levels in the 2010 Korean diet

This study analysed the level of contamination of harmful heavy metals in 3820 food samples available in Korea in 2010. A total of 119 types of samples were collected, including corns, vegetables, fruits, fishes, mollusks, shellfish, crustaceans, seaweed, bean products, meats and eggs from seven major cities. These samples were analysed using ICP-MS after pre-treatment with a microwave-digestion system. Results of lead, cadmium and mercury analyses were compared with the standard specifications of Korea Food Standards Codex. As a result, high levels of Pb, Cd and Hg were detected in “cockle,” “dried-squid” and “shark-meat.” Acceptable intake for consumers was checked using provisional tolerable weekly intake values. Such results will be utilised as data on the exposure of human body through foods. In addition, satisfactory results were obtained through purchase and analysis of National Institute of Science and Technology–certified reference materials to obtain reliability on analysis results.     

电感耦合等离子体质谱法测定大米中的铅、镉、汞残留量研究

目的建立大米中铅、镉、汞的测定方法.方法采用电感耦合等离子体质谱(ICP-MS).结果在0～20 ng/ml范围内铅的浓度与响应值呈良好的线性关系(r=0.9983,n=5);平均回收率为109.3%,RSD=5.6%,(n=6).在0～10ng/ml范围内镉的浓度与响应值呈良好的线性关系(r=0.999998,n=5);平均回收率为99.2%,RSD=6.5%,(n=6).在0～5 ng/ml范围内汞的浓度与响应值呈良好的线性关系(r=0.99998,n=6);平均回收率为91.2%,RSD=7.3%,(n=6).结论本法简便、灵敏、准确.