Improving construct validity: Cronbach, Meehl, and Neurath's ship: Comment.

Smith's article "On Construct Validity: Issues of Method and Measurement" (see record 2005-16347-002) is a fine tribute to L. J. Cronbach and P. E. Meehl (1955) that clarifies the current state and future directions in the understanding of construct validity. Construct validity is a dynamic process, and fit indices need to be used at the service of understanding, not in place of it. The failure of a study or set of studies to support a construct, a measure, or the theory underlying it admits of many explanations, and the ways scientists interpret such failures are prone to cognitive biases and motivated reasoning. This suggests why metrics designed to index the extent to which observations match expectations can be useful prostheses to scientific judgments. As P. E. Meehl (1954) showed decades ago, quantitative, statistical formulas and indices tend to outperform informal, qualitative judgments, and this applies as much to the way researchers evaluate constructs and measures as to judgments in the consulting room. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unresolved issues in measurement validity: An autobiographical overview.

The author reviews known but neglected validity issues in measurement from the perspective of his 50-year history of research (e.g., D. T. Campbell, 1994). He identifies important but too-often overlooked validity issues in applying assessment to social issues. From this base, he suggests needed next directions in the fields of assessment and measurement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development.

A primary goal of scale development is to create a valid measure of an underlying construct. We discuss theoretical principles, practical issues, and pragmatic decisions to help developers maximize the construct validity of scales and subscales. First, it is essential to begin with a clear conceptualization of the target construct. Moreover, the content of the initial item pool should be overinclusive and item wording needs careful attention. Next, the item pool should be tested, along with variables that assess closely related constructs, on a heterogeneous sample representing the entire range of the target population. Finally, in selecting scale items, the goal is unidimensionality rather than internal consistency; this means that virtually all interitem correlations should be moderate in magnitude. Factor analysis can play a crucial role in ensuring the unidimensionality and discriminant validity of scales. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lee J. Cronbach: Distinguished Scientific Contribution Awards for 1973.

Recognizes receipt of the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award for 1973 by Lee J. Cronbach, known for his contributions to psychometric theory and application. Dr. Cronbach's biography and accomplishments are presented, along with the award citation and a listing of the recipient's scientific publications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Donald T. Campbell: APA President-Elect, 1974.

Presents biographical information for Dr. Donald T. Campbell, the Eighty-Third President-elect of the American Psychological Association. Campbell's victory marked the first APA presidential race in which ballots were accompanied by a position statement from each candidate on "issues facing psychology." Campbell's position statement is included here. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responses to issues raised about validity, bias, and fairness in high-stakes testing.

We are pleased that our article (see record 2008-05553-001) prompted this series of four commentaries and that we have this opportunity to respond. We address each in turn. Duckworth (see record 2009-06923-012) and Kaufman and Agars (see record 2009-06923-013) discussed, respectively, two broad issues concerning the validity of selection systems, namely, the expansion of the predictor domain to include noncognitive predictors of performance and the expansion of the criterion domain to include additional criteria (e.g., creativity). We agree with these arguments, noting that they expand on points made in our original article. Wicherts and Millsap (see record 2009-06923-014) rightly noted the distinction between measurement bias and predictive bias and the fact that a finding of no predictive bias does not rule out the possibility that measurement bias still exists. They took issue with a statement we cited from Cullen, Hardison, and Sackett (2004) that if motivational mechanisms, such as stereotype threat, result in minority group members obtaining lower observed scores than true scores (i.e., a form of measurement bias), then the performance of minority group members should be under predicted. Our characterization of Cullen et al.’s (2004) statement was too cryptic; what was intended was a statement to the effect that if the regression lines for majority and minority groups are identical at the level of true predictor scores, then a biasing factor resulting in lower observed scores than true scores for minority group members would shift the minority group regression line to result in under prediction for that group. We do agree with Helms’s (see record 2009-06923-015) call for studying the reasons why racial- group differences are found and encourage this line of research; however, we view the study of racial-group differences and the study of determinants of those differences as complementary. We thank the authors for contributing these commentaries and for stimulating this discussion. Duckworth (2009) and Kaufman and Agars (2009) discussed important issues regarding expanding the predictor and criterion domains. Wicherts and Millsap (2009) correctly noted distinctions between predictive and measurement bias and used stereotype threat as a mechanism to discuss these issues. Helms (2009) raised several issues regarding the validity and fairness of standardized tests. In all cases, we welcomed the opportunity to discuss these topics and provide more detail on issues relating to high-stakes standardized testing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning to predict human error: issues of acceptability, reliability and validity

Human Error Identification (HEI) techniques have been used to predict human error in high risk environments for the past two decades. Despite the lack of supportive evidence for their efficacy, their popularity remains unabated. The application of these approaches is ever-increasing, to include product assessment. The authors feel that it is necessary to prove that the predictions are both reliable and valid before the approaches can be recommended with any confidence. This paper provides evidence to suggest that human error identification techniques in general, and SHERPA in particular, may be acquired with relative ease and can provide reasonable error predictions.     

Lee J. Cronbach (1916-2001): Obituary.

Reports the death of Lee J. Cronbach (1916-2001). The author gives a summery of his life and contributions to psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Making students' evaluations of teaching effectiveness effective: The critical issues of validity, bias, and utility.

This article reviews research indicating that, under appropriate conditions, students' evaluations of teaching (SETs) are (a) multidimensional; (b) reliable and stable; (c) primarily a function of the instructor who teaches a course rather than the course that is taught; (d) relatively valid against a variety of indicators of effective teaching; (e) relatively unaffected by a variety of variables hypothesized as potential biases (e.g., grading leniency, class size, workload, prior subject interest); and (f) useful in improving teaching effectiveness when SETS are coupled with appropriate consultation. The authors recommend rejecting a narrow criterion-related approach to validity and adopting a broad construct-validation approach, recognizing that effective teaching and SETs that reflect teaching effectiveness are multidimensional; no single criterion of effective teaching is sufficient; and tentative interpretations of relations with validity criteria and potential biases should be evaluated critically in different contexts, in relation to multiple criteria of effective teaching, theory, and existing knowledge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comments on Levin et al. and Rosen and Kopel: Internal and external validity issues.

Discusses problems of internal and external validity relevant to applied laboratory research in the modification of sexual behaviors. Two case studies presented by S. M. Levin et al (see record 1978-01505-001) and R. C. Rosen and S. A. Kopel (see record 1978-01511-001) are used to illustrate these problems. Suggestions are presented for improving the internal validity and the generalizability of studies using the laboratory paradigm. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introduction to the special section on construct validity of psychological tests: 50 years after Cronbach and Meehl (1955).

The middle of the 20th century was a very exciting time to be in the field of clinical psychology and, especially, assessment psychology. Seminal publications during that time clarified the then novel distinction between hypothetical constructs and intervening variables (MacCorquodale & Meehl, 1948), elucidated the concept of construct validity (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955), and described a methodology for estimating convergent and discriminant validity of measures of constructs and the role of variance due to common methods in the associations among measures of similar and different constructs (Campbell & Fiske, 1959). These articles have been the bedrock of clinical psychological and personality psychology assessment since that time. The year 2005 marks the 50th anniversary of Cronbach and Meehl's (1955) article "Construct Validity in Psychological Tests." A submission last year by Smith (2005b) struck me as an excellent time to honor the signal contributions of these psychologists of the last century through consideration particularly of the article by Cronbach and Meehl. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From ecological to moral psychology: Morality and the psychology of Egon Brunswik.

Moral judgment and behavior are uniquely resistant to psychological analysis because morality generally is defined in terms that do not admit of psychological predication. Principal among these is the idea of freedom. An agent can act morally only on the condition that it is also free to do otherwise. The respective theoretical premises of C. Sunstein (1997) and E. Brunswik (1966) are contrasted in order to suggest that Brunswikian theory constitutes a distinct and highly promising new approach to the psychology of moral judgment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical uses of mental imagery: Experimental foundations, theoretical misconceptions, and research issues.

Suggests that the growing use of mental imagery in clinical settings has been hampered by major theoretical deficits, notably the virtual absence of interdisciplinary models not constrained by a specific therapeutic orientation. Information-processing data pertaining to the functional and structural properties of imagery are reviewed to illustrate that images may be but incomplete pictures that also convey nonpictorial, abstract information. It is proposed that the imagery and verbal/symbolic processing systems are functionally discrete but comparably influential in image generation, elaboration, and appraisal, a property suggesting that clinical images comprise multiple representational events of a visual, verbal, and affective nature. The notion of the image as a mental photograph has only limited applicability. Methodological concerns associated with the study of clinical imagery are examined, pertinent literature is reviewed for each issue, and data are presented to demonstrate the significance of the problems confronting contemporary imagery researchers. (119 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Smoking outcome expectancies: Factor structure, predictive validity, and discriminant validity.

Recent models of addiction posit that drug outcome expectancies are influential determinants of drug use. The current research examines the dimensional structure, predictive validity, and discriminant validity of expectancies for cigarette smoking in a prospective study. There was a good fit between the factor structure of the Smoking Consequences Questionnaire and the observed data. In addition, the internal consistency of each scale was satisfactory. Moreover, there was considerable evidence for the predictive and discriminant validity of expectancies. Expectancies of positive outcomes (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and appetite-weight control) predicted withdrawal severity. Negative reinforcement expectancies and expectancies of negative consequences predicted cessation success. Predictive relations remained significant after controlling for related constructs: negative affect, stress, and dependence measures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology and mental health: An enduring partnership.

Discusses the relationship between psychology and the National Institute of Mental Health's (NIMH's) funding of research in the behavioral sciences and the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental illness. It is pointed out that, despite the fears of biological reductionism, the NIMH is determined to maintain a balanced program across the broad spectrum of its efforts. The funding of current research efforts in a variety of areas is outlined. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Single-group validity, differential validity, and differential prediction.

The controversial topics of single-group and differential validity have been the subject of several recent articles. In line with the critiques of the original articles, it is argued that differential validity is too narrow a focus. Differential prediction and considerations of bias in selection procedures are more critical issues and require more than a comparison of correlation coefficients. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Optimism: An enduring resource for romantic relationships.

This study extends research on the adaptive aspects of dispositional optimism to romantic relationships. We hypothesized that optimism would be positively linked to cooperative problem solving in romantic relationships, given previous research indicating that optimists are likely to use approach coping strategies. Results indicated that optimism was linked to satisfying and happy romantic relationships, and a substantial portion of this association was mediated by reports of cooperative problem solving. Moreover, optimism predicted relative increases in relationship satisfaction over a 2-year interval. All told, these results suggest that optimism may serve as an enduring resource for romantic unions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The bivalency effect in task switching: General and enduring.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the generality and temporal endurance of the bivalency effect in task switching. This effect refers to the slowing on univalent stimuli that occurs when bivalent stimuli appear occasionally. We used a paradigm involving predictable switches between 3 simple tasks, with bivalent stimuli occasionally occurring on one of the tasks. The generality of the bivalency effect was investigated by using different tasks and different types of bivalent stimuli, and the endurance of this effect was investigated across different intertrial intervals (ITIs) and across the univalent trials that followed trials with bivalent stimuli. In 3 experiments, the results showed a general, robust, and enduring bivalency effect for all ITI conditions. Although the effect declined across trials, it remained significant for about 4 trials following one with a bivalent stimulus. Our findings emphasise the importance of top–down processes in task-switching performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Donald T. Campbell: Distinguished Scientific Contribution Awards.

Presents the citation of the 1970 American Psychological Association Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award winner, Donald Thomas Campbell. The citation reads: "For his wide range of contributions in psychological epistemology, social psychology, and research methods. By the diversity of his talents and his courageous energy, he has resolved many of the polarities that exert antagonistic pulls on most of us and, by making excellent contributions at both poles, provides an inspiring example that choosing one does not require sacrificing the other. At once a philosopher and a methodologist, a theoretician and an experimenter, a field and a laboratory worker, a basic and an applied researcher, his work relevant to both science and society, he is at the same time, a psychologist's psychologist and an enricher of fields beyond our own." Personal biographic information is also included, along with a list of the recipient's scientific writings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A further evaluation of the Aggression Questionnaire: issues of validity and reliability

An analysis of the four scales from Buss and Perry's (1992, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452-459) Aggression Questionnaire was conducted. Examined was the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, the influence of social desirability, and the interrelationships with other measures of aggression. The results suggest that the four scales of The Aggression Questionnaire have moderate to high internal consistencies and are stable over seven months of testing. Social desirability was found to have a moderately high negative relationship with the aggression scales suggesting that social desirability may influence responses provided on The Aggression Questionnaire. In addition, the four aggression scales were found to be positively related to other measures of aggression including scales assessing affect instability and aggressive attitudes, as well as scales designed for clinical use, suggesting some degree of construct validity.