Simulation of gas mixing and transport in a multi-compartment geometry using the GOTHIC containment code and relatively coarse meshes

The recently concluded OECD SETH project included twenty-four experiments on basic flows and gas transport and mixing driven by jets and plumes in two, large, connected vessels of the PANDA facility. The experiments featured injection of saturated or superheated steam, or a mixture of steam and helium in one vessel and venting from the same vessel or from the connected one. These tests have been especially designed for providing an extensive data base for the assessment of three-dimensional codes, including CFD codes. In particular, one of the goals of the analytical activities associated with the experiments was to evaluate the detail of the model (mesh) necessary for capturing the various phenomena. This work reports an overview of the results obtained for these experimental data using the advanced containment code GOTHIC and relatively coarse meshes, which are coarser than the ones typically used for the simulation with commercial CFD codes, but are still representative of the models which are currently affordable for a full containment analysis. In general, the phenomena were correctly represented in the simulations with GOTHIC, and the agreement of the results with the data was in most cases pretty good, in some cases excellent. Only for a few tests (or particular phenomena occurring in some tests) the simulations showed noticeable discrepancies with the experimental data, which could be referred to either an insufficiently detailed mesh or to lack of specialized models for local effects.     

Development of Systematic Models for Aerosol Agglomeration and Spray Removal under Severe Accident Conditions

Radionuclide behavior during various severe accident conditions has been addressed as one of the important issues to discuss environmental safety in nuclear power plants. The present paper deals with the development of analytical models and their validations for the agglomeration of multiple-component aerosol and spray removal that controls source terms to the environment of both aerosols and gaseous radionuclides during recirculation mode operation in a containment system for a light water reactor. As for aerosol agglomeration, the single collision kernel model that can cover all types of two-body collision of aerosol was developed. In addition, the dynamic model that can treat aerosol and vapor transfer leading to the equilibrium condition under the containment spray operation was developed. The validations of the present models for multiple-component aerosol growth by agglomeration were performed by comparisons with Nuclear Safety Pilot Plant (NSPP) experiments at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and AB experiments at Hanford Engineering National Laboratory (HEDL). In addition, the spray removal models were applied to the analysis of containment spray experiment (CSE) at HEDL. The results calculated by the models showed good agreements with experimental results.     

Progress in understanding key aerosol issues

The 6th FWP SARNET project launched a set of studies to enhance understanding and predictability of relevant-risk scenarios where uncertainties related to aerosol phenomena were still significant: retention in complex structures, such as steam generator by-pass SGTR sequences or cracks in concrete walls of an over-pressurised containment, and primary circuit deposit remobilization, either as vapours (revaporisation) or aerosols (resuspension). This paper summarizes the major advances achieved.Progress has been made on aerosol scrubbing in complex structures. Models based on empirical data (ARISG) and improvements to previous codes (SPARC) have been proposed, respectively, for dry and wet aerosol retention, but, further development and validation remains, as was noted during the ARTIST international project and potential successors. New CFD models for particle-turbulence interactions have been developed based on random walk stochastic treatments and have shown promise in accurately describing particle deposition rates in complex geometries. Aerosol transport in containment concrete cracks is fairly well understood, with several models developed but validation was limited. Extension of such validation against prototypic data will be feasible through an ongoing joint experimental program in the CEA COLIMA facility under the 6th Framework PLINIUS platform.Primary deposit revaporisation has been experimentally demonstrated on samples from the Phebus-FP project. Data review has pinpointed variables affecting the process, particularly temperature. Available models have been satisfactorily used to interpret separate-effect tests, but performing integral experiments, where revaporisation is likely combined with other processes, still pose a difficult challenge. Further experimental data as well as modelling efforts seem to be necessary to get a full understanding. Resuspension, sometimes referred to as mechanical remobilization, has been recently addressed in SARNET and although a set of models were already available in the literature (i.e., Rock'n Roll model, CESAR, ECART), further work is needed to extend current capabilities to multi-layer deposits and to produce simplified, but sufficiently accurate, models. A major remaining uncertainty is the particle-to-particle/wall adhesion and its dependence on microscale roughness. Data from the previous EU STORM project have been retrieved and further experiments designed for code validation are being used to benchmark the models.     

Sprays in containment: Final results of the SARNET spray benchmark

The influence of containment sprays on atmosphere behaviour, a sub-task of the Work Package WP12-2 CAM (Containment Atmosphere Mixing), has been investigated through benchmark exercises based on TOSQAN (IRSN) and MISTRA (CEA) experiments. These tests are being simulated with lumped-parameter (LP) and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) codes. Both atmosphere depressurization and mixing are being studied in two phases: a ‘thermalhydraulic part’, which deals with depressurization by sprays (TOSQAN 101 and MISTRA MASPn), and a ‘dynamic part’, dealing with light gas stratification break-up by spray (TOSQAN 113 and MISTRA MARC2b).In the thermalhydraulic part of the benchmark, participants have found the appropriate modelling to obtain good global results in terms of experimental pressure and mean gas temperature, for both TOSQAN and MISTRA tests. It can thus be considered that code users have a good knowledge of their spray modelling parameters. On a local level, for the TOSQAN test, single droplet behaviour is found to be well estimated by some calculations, but the global modelling of multiple droplets, i.e. of the spray, specifically for the spray dilution, is questionable in some CFD calculations. It can lead to some discrepancies localized in the spray region and can thus have a high impact on the global results, since most of the heat and mass transfers occur inside this region. In the MISTRA tests, wall condensation mass flow rates and local temperatures were used for code-experiment comparison and show that improvement of the local modelling, including initial conditions determination, is needed.In this dynamic part, a general result, in both tests, is that calculations do not recover the same kinetics of the mixing. Furthermore, concerning global mixing, LP contributions seem not suitable here. For the TOSQAN benchmark, the one-phase CFD calculations recover partially the phenomena involved during the mixing, whereas the two-phase flow CFD contributions generally recover the phenomena. Moreover, one important result is also that none of the contributions finds the exact amount of helium remaining in the dome above the spray nozzle in the TOSQAN 113. Discrepancies are rather high (above 5%vol of helium). Results are thus encouraging, but the level of validation should be improved. The same kind of conclusions can be drawn for the MISTRA MARC2B tests.As a conclusion of this SARNET spray benchmark, the level of validation obtained here is encouraging for the use of spray modelling for risk analysis. However, some more detailed investigations are needed to improve model parameters and decrease the uncertainty for containment applications as well as to increase the predictability of the phenomena within the containment analyses. Further activities are well encouraged on this topic, such as numerical benchmarks on analytical separate-effect experiments.     

Phenomenological studies on molten core-concrete interactions

Recent assessments of risk due to severe accidents in light water reactors indicate that molten core-concrete interactions (MCCI) may dominate containment loads and performance, as well as the release of non-volatile fission product aerosols to the containment building. This program has investigated several important aspects of MCCIs in an effort to support the USNRC integral melt-concrete programs as well as the CORCON and VANESA computer code development and verification program. Among these are interlayer heat and mass transfer and liquid-liquid boiling processes.The issues of interlayer heat and mass transfer address phenomena that occur primarily interior to the molten core debris itself. Models have been developed to predict the onset of entrainment between liquid layers, the rate of entrainment, and the rate of heat transfer, both with and without entrainment. Application to the reactor case indicates that entrainment and mixing may or may not occur, depending upon the prevailing thermal hydraulic conditions in the melt.The issues of liquid-liquid film boiling address phenomena that occur primarily at the melt-coolant interface. Results from melt-water film boiling studies have suggested that the coolant heat flux increases above the flat plate limit with non-condensable gas injection from below. Steam explosions occur frequently; the frequency and magnitude vary with gas injection rate.     

Air-ingress analysis: Part 1. Theoretical approach

Idaho National Laboratory (INL), under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), is performing research and development that focuses on key phenomena important during potential scenarios that may occur in very high temperature gas-cooled reactors (VHTRs). Phenomena identification and ranking studies to date have ranked an air-ingress event, following on the heels of a VHTR depressurization, as important with regard to core safety. Consequently, the development of advanced air-ingress-related models and verification and validation data are a very high priority.Following a loss of coolant and system depressurization incident, air will enter the core of the VHTR through the break, possibly causing oxidation of the graphite core and reflector graphite structure. Simple core and plant models indicate that, under certain circumstances, the oxidation may proceed at an elevated rate with additional heat generated from the oxidation reaction itself. Under postulated conditions of fluid flow and temperature, excessive degradation of lower plenum graphite caused by graphite oxidation can lead to a loss of mechanical strength. Excessive oxidation of core graphite can also lead to a release of fission products into the confinement, which could be detrimental to reactor safety. Analytical models developed in this study will improve our understanding of this phenomenon.This paper presents two sets of analytical models for the qualitative assessment of the air-ingress phenomena. The results from the analytical models are compared with results of the computational fluid dynamic models (CFD) in the subsequent paper. The analytical models agree well with those CFD results.     

RELAP5/3.2 assessment against low pressure onset of flow instability in parallel heated channels

Best Estimate computer codes have been, so far, developed for safety analysis of nuclear power plants and were extensively validated against a large set of separate effects and integral test facilities experimental data relevant to such kind of reactors. Their application to research reactors is not fully straightforward. Modelling problems generally emerge when applying existing models to low pressure and more particularly to subcooled flow boiling situations. The objective of the present work is to investigate the RELAP5/3.2 system code capabilities in predicting phenomena that could be encountered under abnormal research reactor’s operating conditions. For this purpose, the separate effect related to the static onset of flow instability is investigated. The cases considered herein are the flow excursion tests performed at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory thermal hydraulic test loop (THTL) as well as some representative Whittle and Forgan (W & F) experiments. The simulation results are presented and the capabilities of RELAP5/Mod 3.2 in predicting this critical phenomenon are discussed.     

Verification and validation of the HTGR systems CFD code Flownex

Regulatory requirements prescribe extensive verification and validation (V&V) of computer codes that are used in the design and analysis of accident conditions in nuclear plants. Flownex is a dynamic systems CFD code used as the primary thermal-fluid simulation code by the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor Company (PBMR).Stringent quality assurance processes have been implemented to ensure that the code conforms to the set standards. These processes include the comparison of Flownex with analytical results as well as with experimental data.The results of this process are summarized in this paper. Analytical solutions are used to verify Flownex's element models so as to ensure that the basic theory is correctly implemented in the computer code. As part of the analytical V&V effort various well-defined problems are solved using numerical methods implemented in independent computer codes.Comparison with experimental and plant data is a very important feature of the V&V program to validate that the chosen theory is fit for purpose. For this, validation data from the pebble bed micro model (PBMM) is used. In addition to the PBMM experimental data Flownex is compared to a number of small thermal-fluid experiments in which certain specific component phenomena is validated. These experiments were developed in collaboration with North-West University (previously Potchefstroom University).     

三维离散纵标-蒙特卡罗耦合系统TDOMINO开发与验证

基于离散纵标和蒙特卡罗方法开发了三维离散纵标 蒙特卡罗耦合系统TDOMINO,其耦合形式灵活,可根据需要选择不同坐标系下的耦合方式进行计算分析。利用美国橡树岭国家实验室提供的HBR-2基准题,采用TDOMINO分别建立了直角坐标系和圆柱坐标系下的耦合模型进行验证计算,给出了反应堆辐照监督管处6种典型核素比活度的计算结果,与基准报告中提供的实验测量值和DORT、MCNP、TORT等程序计算结果相比,TDOMINO具有较好的计算精度,可用于解决复杂屏蔽计算问题。     

Blowdown tests to verify calculation methods for loss-of-coolant accidents

The HDR Facility represents a full scale test rig for the simulation of nuclear power plant accidents. The experimental and analytical investigations are basically aimed at the identification of the main phenomena and influences occurring during severe accidents and at the verification of calculation models and codes to describe those accidental effects. During Phase I of the program (1975–1983) blowdown investigations covering design basis accidents aspects formed the focal point of the research activities. The investigated components were full scale isolation valves, pressure vessel internals (especially core barrel) and the containment vessel and internal structures.     

Applicability of structural wall test results to seismic design of nuclear facilities

A review of tests on earthquake-resistant reinforced concrete structural walls is presented. Laboratory tests of isolated walls and construction joints are discussed. Where appropriate, design recommendations are given. The review indicates only few experimental data are available for short walls which are directly applicable to nuclear power plant design. In particular, tests of short rectangular walls subjected to load reversals are needed. Tests are also needed to determine the damping and frequency characteristics of cracked short walls. Analytical and experimental results should be correlated so that the hysteretic response observed in tests can be realistically related to the analytical response “demand” of nuclear power plant structures.     

Experiments on basic thermalhydraulic phenomena relevant for LWR containments: Gas mixing and transport induced by buoyant jets in a multi-compartment geometry

In the frame of the OECD SETH project twenty-four experiments have been carried out on basic gas transport and mixing phenomena in the large-scale, multi-compartment PANDA facility. The experiments consist of several series based on the flow configuration driving the gas transport including plume and jet injection of saturated or superheated steam. A variety of test configurations with well-defined initial and boundary conditions have been investigated, including the parametric effects of the geometry of the injection, the composition and velocity of the injected mixture, the initial ambient composition, the vent location and the initial temperatures. The tests have been designed to be used for the validation of computer codes that are capable of analyzing the thermalhydraulic safety of the containment of light water reactors (LWRs). The results obtained form an extensive database especially valuable for the assessment of the capabilities of three-dimensional simulation tools. The present work reports on a specific test series of the aforementioned experimental program, the so-called Free-Plume Series featuring vertical injection of buoyant steam driving the gas transport. The experimental data is presented showing its quality and the trends in the experiments are analyzed. The phenomena whose prediction might be challenging for codes are emphasized. After the expiration of the confidentiality period, the experimental data is now available for the broad scientific community to be used for code validation purposes.     

Development and testing of analytical models for the pebble bed type HTRs

The pebble bed type gas cooled high temperature reactor (HTR) appears to be a good candidate for the next generation nuclear reactor technology. These reactors have unique characteristics in terms of the randomness in geometry, and require special techniques to analyze their systems. This study includes activities concerning the testing of computational tools and the qualification of models. Indeed, it is essential that the validated analytical tools be available to the research community. From this viewpoint codes like MCNP, ORIGEN and RELAP5, which have been used in nuclear industry for many years, are selected to identify and develop new capabilities needed to support HTR analysis. The geometrical model of the full reactor is obtained by using lattice and universe facilities provided by MCNP. The coupled MCNP-ORIGEN code is used to estimate the burnup and the refuelling scheme. Results obtained from Monte Carlo analysis are interfaced with RELAP5 to analyze the thermal hydraulics and safety characteristics of the reactor. New models and methodologies are developed for several past and present experimental and prototypical facilities that were based on HTR pebble bed concepts. The calculated results are compared with available experimental data and theoretical evaluations showing very good agreement. The ultimate goal of the validation of the computer codes for pebble bed HTR applications is to acquire and reinforce the capability of these general purpose computer codes for performing HTR core design and optimization studies.     

Multi-dimensional simulation of hydrogen distribution and turbulent combustion in severe accidents

A joint research project was carried out in the EU Fourth Framework Programme with the goal to develop verified and commonly agreed physical and numerical models for the analysis of hydrogen distribution, turbulent combustion and mitigation, which are suited for the multi-dimensional CFD codes that exist at the institutions of the participating partners. The work programme and the activities of the partners are described. Significant progress has been made in the areas of experiments, model development, model verification and model application to nuclear power plants. Joint benchmark tests were defined and analysed. In addition to the regular partners meetings, topical workshops were conducted to harmonize the experimental and theoretical work. The paper presents major experimental results, gives examples for the achieved multi-dimensional modelling capabilities, describes implementation into and validation of codes, and presents results of plant analysis activities.     

Experimental and analytical study on aerosol behavior in WIND project

The tests on fission product (FP) behavior in piping under severe accidents are being conducted in the wide range piping integrity demonstration (WIND) project at JAERI to investigate the piping integrity which may be threatened by decay heat from deposited FPs. In order to obtain the background information for future WIND experiment and to confirm analytical capabilities of the FP aerosol analysis codes, ART and VICTORIA, the FP behavior in safety relief valve (SRV) line of BWR during TQUX sequence was analyzed. The analyses showed that the mechanisms that control the FP deposition and transport agreed well between the two codes. However, the differences in models such as diffusiophoresis or turbulence, the treatment of chemical forms and aerosol mass distribution could affect the deposition in piping and, consequently, on the source terms. The WIND experimental analyses were also conducted with a three-dimensional fluiddynamic WINDFLOW, ART and an interface module to appropriately couple the fluiddynamics and FP behavior analyses. The analyses showed that the major deposition mechanism for cesium iodide (CsI) is thermophoresis which depends on the thermal gradient in gas. Accordingly, the coupling analyses were found to be essential to accurately predict the CsI deposition in piping, to which little attention has been paid in the previous studies.     

Analysis of hydrogen depletion using a scaled passive autocatalytic recombiner

Hydrogen depletion tests of a scaled passive autocatalytic recombiner (PAR) were performed in the Surtsey test vessel Germany) at Sandia National Laboratories (SNL). The experiments were used to determine the hydrogen depletion rate of a PAR in the presence of steam and also to evaluate the effect of scale (number of cartridges) on the PAR performance at both low and high hydrogen concentrations.     

The hexagonal bundle heat transfer and fluid flow experiment agathe hex

Problems of heat transfer and fluid flow in gas-cooled reactor fuel elements have been studied at the Swiss Federal Institute for Reactor Research (EIR) for 14 years. Since 1967, the activities have been directed toward gas-cooled fast breeder reactors (GCFRs). The aim of analytical and experimental studies has been to develop analytical models and comprehensive computer codes for the prediction of temperature and pressure distributions in GCFR fuel element configurations. The models developed at EIR are based on the results of specific experiments. Full-scale experiments in actual geometry are being carried out to verify the computer codes for a wide range of parameters. This paper describes the heat transfer loop and the test sections designed to verify GCFR thermohydraulic design codes.     

Fluid mixing and flow distribution in the reactor circuit, measurement data base

Experimental investigations and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations on coolant mixing in pressurised water reactors (PWR) have been performed within the EC project FLOMIX-R. The project aims at describing the mixing phenomena relevant for both safety analysis, particularly in steam line break and boron dilution scenarios, and mixing phenomena of interest for economical operation and the structural integrity. Measurement data from a set of mixing experiments have been gained by using advanced measurement techniques with enhanced resolution in time and space. Slug mixing tests simulating the start-up of the first main circulation pump are performed with two 1:5 scaled facilities: the Rossendorf Coolant Mixing model ROCOM and the Vattenfall test facility. Additional data on slug mixing in a VVER-1000 type reactor have been gained at a 1:5 scaled metal mock-up at EDO Gidropress. Experimental results on buoyancy driven mixing of fluids with density differences have been obtained at ROCOM and the Fortum PTS test facility.Concerning mixing phenomena of interest for operational issues and thermal fatigue, flow distribution data available from commissioning tests at PWRs and VVER are used together with the data from the ROCOM facility as a basis for the flow distribution studies.In the paper, the experiments performed are described, results of the mixing experiments are shown and discussed. Efforts on computational fluid dynamics codes validation on selected mixing tests applying Best Practice Guidelines in code validation will be reported about in a separate paper.     

Core loss during a severe accident (COLOSS)

The COLOSS project was a 3-year shared-cost action, which started in February 2000. The work-programme performed by 19 partners was shaped around complementary activities aimed at improving severe accident codes. Unresolved risk-relevant issues regarding H₂ production, melt generation and the source term were studied through a large number of experiments such as (a) dissolution of fresh and high burn-up UO₂ and MOX by molten Zircaloy, (b) simultaneous dissolution of UO₂ and ZrO₂, (c) oxidation of U–O–Zr mixtures, (d) degradation–oxidation of B₄C control rods.Corresponding models were developed and implemented in severe accident computer codes. Upgraded codes were then used to apply results in plant calculations and evaluate their consequences on key severe accident sequences in different plants involving B₄C control rods and in the TMI-2 accident.Significant results have been produced from separate-effects, semi-global and large-scale tests on COLOSS topics enabling the development and validation of models and the improvement of some severe accident codes. Break-throughs were achieved on some issues for which more data are needed for consolidation of the modelling in particular on burn-up effects on UO₂ and MOX dissolution and oxidation of U–O–Zr and B₄C–metal mixtures. There was experimental evidence that the oxidation of these mixtures can contribute significantly to the large H₂ production observed during the reflooding of degraded cores under severe accident conditions.The plant calculation activity enabled (a) the assessment of codes to calculate core degradation with the identification of main uncertainties and needs for short-term developments and (b) the identification of safety implications of new results.Main results and recommendations for future R&D activities are summarized in this paper.