Responsive parenting: Establishing early foundations for social, communication, and independent problem-solving skills.

Mothers whose infants varied in early biological characteristics (born at term, n = 120; born at very low birth weight [VLBW], n = 144) were randomized to a target group (n = 133) or developmental feedback comparison group (n = 131) to determine whether learning responsive behaviors would facilitate infant development. The target condition included videotaped examples, problem-solving activities, and mothers' critique of their own behaviors through video procedures across 10 home visits. All target versus comparison mothers showed greater increases across multiple responsiveness behaviors observed in 4 assessments conducted across 6-13 months of age; changes in emotionally supportive behaviors were strongest for target mothers of infants born at VLBW. Increased maternal responsiveness facilitated greater growth in target infants' social, emotional, communication, and cognitive competence, supporting a causal role for responsiveness on infant development. Although benefits were generally comparable across risk groups, aspects of social and emotional skills showed greater change for those born at VLBW. Evidence for responsiveness as a multidimensional construct was provided as well as the importance of different aspects of responsiveness mediating the effect of the intervention on different infant skill domains. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does early responsive parenting have a special importance for children's development or is consistency across early childhood necessary?

The role of early versus ongoing maternal responsiveness in predicting cognitive and social development was examined in home visits for mothers, full-term children (n?=?103), and medically low-risk (n?=?102) and high-risk (n?=?77) preterm children at 5 ages. There were 4 maternal clusters based on warm and contingent responsiveness behaviors observed early (at 6, 12, and 24 months) and late (at 3 and 4 years): high early, high late; high early, low late; low early, moderate late; and low early, low late. Children, especially preterm children, showed faster cognitive growth when mothers were consistently responsive. Social growth was similar in the consistently responsive (high-high) and the early-responsive inconsistent (high-low) clusters, but greater deceleration at 4 years among children with mothers in the inconsistent cluster refuted the notion of a unique role for early responsiveness. The importance of consistent responsiveness, defined by an affective-emotional construct, was evident even when a broader constellation of parenting behaviors was considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mother–infant responsiveness: Timing, mutual regulation, and interactional context.

Mutual regulation during the naturalistic interaction of 150 mothers and their 4-month-old infants was investigated from a dynamic systems perspective. Microanalyses of a wide range of behaviors and analysis of contingencies indicated that a 3-sec time period best captured contingencies. Both mothers and infants communicated primarily through vocal signals and responses, although maternal touches and infant looks also elicited responses. Although more expressive mothers did not have infants who behaved similarly, levels of contingent responsiveness between partners were significantly associated and occurred within distinct behavioral channels, suggesting coregulated interactional processes in which contingently responsive mothers shape their infants' communications toward mutual similarity. Mothers were more influential than infants over object play, whereas infants were more influential than mothers over expressive behavior. Interactional context consistently influenced contingent responsiveness; there was less mutual responsiveness when the infant was exploring, being held, or looking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Influence of Decreased Parental Resources on the Efficacy of a Responsive Parenting Intervention.

To understand whether a responsive parenting intervention for socially disadvantaged mothers was related to preintervention parenting resources, the authors examined both of these conditions as moderators of behavior change in 264 participating families (term, n = 120; very low birth weight, n = 144). Families were randomly assigned to an intervention that targeted responsive behaviors or received developmental information. Limited internal resources, particularly higher levels of anger/hostility, were related to less positive change for the broadest range of responsive behaviors for mothers in the information-only condition but not those in the intervention. Decreased social support moderated less change in provision of rich language input. A systematic session format and parent facilitator may be keys to understanding why a responsive parenting intervention can be effective in spite of limited parental resources. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Father Involvement Moderates the Effect of Maternal Depression During a Child's Infancy on Child Behavior Problems in Kindergarten.

This research investigated whether father involvement in infancy may reduce or exacerbate the well-established adverse effect of maternal depression during a child's infancy on behavior problems in childhood. In a community sample (N = 350), the authors found that fathers' self-reported parenting styles interacted with the amount of time fathers spent caring for their infants to moderate the longitudinal effect of maternal depression during the child's infancy on children's internalizing, but not externalizing, behaviors. Low to medium amounts of high-warmth father involvement and high amounts of medium- or high-control father involvement at this time were associated with lower child internalizing behaviors. Paternal depression during a child's infancy exacerbated the effect of maternal depression, but this moderating effect was limited to depressed fathers spending medium to high amounts of time caring for their infants. Results emphasize the moderating role fathers may play in reducing or exacerbating the adverse long-term effects of maternal depression during a child's infancy on later child behavior problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Viewing imitation as child responsiveness: A link between teaching and discipline domains of socialization.

The authors observed 106 children's imitation and responses to maternal control at 14 and 22 months. Imitation was observed in a teaching task in which mothers modeled 3 standard pretend-play sequences. Responses to control were observed in typical discipline contexts. Girls imitated more than boys. Responsive imitation measures were coherent and longitudinally stable and correlated significantly with responsiveness to maternal control. The authors propose that a young child's willingness to imitate his or her parent in a teaching context and to comply in a control context both reflect a responsive or receptive stance toward parental socialization. The consistency of children's responsiveness across contexts has implications for both sociomoral and cognitive development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early visual experience affects postnatal auditory responsiveness in bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus).

Results from 6 experiments suggest perinatal visual experience interferes with postnatal auditory responsiveness in bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus). Light- or dark-reared control chicks responded similarly to bobwhite maternal Calls A or B following hatching. Light-reared chicks that experienced 10 min/hr of Call A or B from hatching until testing preferred the familiar call at Days 2-4, but dark-reared chicks preferred the familiar call at all ages. Increased amounts of exposure to maternal calls during postnatal Days 1-2 led to auditory responsiveness deficits in light-reared chicks. Similarly, embryos exposed to 10 min/hr of prenatal visual cues required 48 hr of postnatal Call A or B exposure to demonstrate auditory discrimination. These findings highlight the linkages between developing auditory and visual systems during infancy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prepartum changes in maternal responsiveness and nest defense in Rattus norvegicus..

Examined 297 female rats for changes in maternal responsiveness during late pregnancy by exposing Ss to foster pups in tests lasting 15–30 min under conditions favoring the rapid initiation of maternal behavior. Ss were divided into 17 groups according to state of pregnancy (nonpregnant, Day 17, Day 20, Day 21, or Day 22); type of nest; and parity. Nulliparous Ss were compared with primiparous and with experienced breeders. Nest defense was observed by introducing unfamiliar males (2-min tests) on Day 22. Results are presented for 3 periods: Days 17–20, when maternal responsiveness was lower than in the nonpregnant condition; Day 21, when maternal responsiveness returned to or rose above nonpregnant levels; and on Day 22 (the 3.5 hrs prior to delivery), during which 90% of Ss almost immediately retrieved, gathered, and tended foster pups and during which 92% attacked the unfamiliar intruders. (Attacks were rare earlier.) Maternally experienced Ss were more responsive to pups than nulliparous Ss when nonpregnant and throughout late pregnancy, but both groups were equally likely to show prepartum aggression. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of ovariectomy on the reproductive behavior of female ring doves (Streptopelia risoria).

Studied the behavior of 12 adult male and 12 adult female ring doves during the breeding period. The stages of female mating responsiveness were defined by characteristic behavioral events (e.g., approaching, nest soliciting, nest crouching, and nest building). In Exp. I, 24 females had their left (functional) ovary completely or partially removed or received sham operations. Sinistrally ovariectomized Ss lost their characteristic behavior patterns in response to courting: Their behaviors were regressed to that of the nonresponsive stage, where sleeping, perching, and other self-directed activities are the dominant behavior patterns. The characteristic responsive behavior patterns were recovered in some Ss as the right rudimentary ovary regenerated. In Exp. II with 25 female Ss, a 2-stage bilateral ovariectomy entirely abolished any chance of behavioral recovery. Results verify the role of ovarian hormones in female reproductive behavior in ring doves. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early intervention in adoptive families: supporting maternal sensitive responsiveness, infant-mother attachment, and infant competence

Results from adoption studies suggest that adoptive families may experience special impediments with respect to the developmental progress and outcome of their children. Based on attachment theory, two early intervention programs were designed to support families in the Netherlands with an internationally adopted child. The intervention aimed at promoting maternal sensitive responsiveness, secure infant-mother attachment relationships, and infant exploratory competence. Ninety families with an interracially adopted infant (71 from Sri Lanka and 19 from Korea) were assigned to either a control group or one of two intervention groups. All of the children, 44 boys and 46 girls, were placed for adoption under the age of 5 months (M = 8 weeks). The first intervention group (N = 30) received a personal book, which focused on sensitive parenting. The second intervention group (N = 30) was provided with the same book as well as with three video-feedback sessions at their home. The control group (N = 30) did not receive intervention. In the control group sensitive responsiveness and security of attachment were comparable to outcomes from normative samples. The least intensive program, the personal book, did not bring about change in mothers or infants. In contrast, intervention effects were established upon maternal sensitive responsiveness, infant competence, and infant-mother attachment in the group that received both the book and video feedback.     

One-stage midline unifocalization and complete repair in infancy versus multiple-stage unifocalization followed by repair for complex heart disease with major aortopulmonary collaterals

BACKGROUND: Patients with pulmonary atresia, ventricular septal defect, and major aortopulmonary collateral arteries have traditionally required multiple unifocalization staging operations before undergoing complete repair. Recently, the feasibility of a single-stage unifocalization and repair was demonstrated by Hanley. In this report, we describe our experience with each approach. METHODS AND RESULTS: Since 1989, 11 of 12 patients with pulmonary atresia, ventricular septal defect, and major aortopulmonary collateral arteries have undergone complete surgical correction. The first seven patients were subjected to staged bilateral unifocalizations, with repair being achieved in six (group I). The last five patients have undergone a single-stage midline unifocalization and repair via a sternotomy (group II). Four of these were infants (2 weeks to 9 months) and one was 13 years old. All patients in group I had tetralogy of Fallot, whereas in group II three patients had tetralogy of Fallot, one patient had double-outlet right ventricle, and one patient had complete atrioventricular canal and transposition. In group I, the median age at the first operation was 43 weeks. Complete repair was performed at a median age of 3.5 years, with a mean number of 3.3 operations required. In group II, only one operation was required to achieve complete repair at a median age of 28 weeks. The postoperative right ventricular/left ventricular pressure ratio was 0.49 in group I and 0.45 in group II. One intraoperative death and one late death occurred in group I and no early or late deaths in group II. Currently, four patients in group I and all five patients in group II are alive and well. CONCLUSIONS: Early intervention with both surgical approaches can lead to complete biventricular repair in most patients. Because the single-stage midline unifocalization and repair can achieve a completely repaired heart in infancy with one operation, it is currently our approach of choice.     

The glycosyl-inositol-phosphate and dimyristoylglycerol moieties of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor of the trypanosome variant-specific surface glycoprotein are distinct macrophage-activating factors

The TNF-alpha-inducing capacity of different trypanosome components was analyzed in vitro, using as indicator cells a macrophage cell line (2C11/12) or peritoneal exudate cells from LPS-resistant C3H/HeJ mice and LPS-sensitive C3H/HeN mice. The variant-specific surface glycoprotein (VSG) was identified as the major TNF-alpha-inducing component present in trypanosome-soluble extracts. Both soluble (sVSG) and membrane-bound VSG (mfVSG) were shown to manifest similar TNF-alpha-inducing capacities, indicating that the dimyristoylglycerol (DMG) compound of the mfVSG anchor was not required for TNF-alpha triggering. Detailed analysis indicated that the glycosyl-inositol-phosphate (GIP) moiety was responsible for the TNF-alpha-inducing activity of VSG and that the presence of the GIP-associated galactose side chain was essential for optimal TNF-alpha production. Furthermore, the results showed that the responsiveness of macrophages toward the TNF-alpha-inducing activity of VSG was strictly dependent on the activation state of the macrophages, since resident macrophages required IFN-gamma preactivation to become responsive. Comparative analysis of the ability of both forms of VSG to activate macrophages revealed that mfVSG but not sVSG stimulates macrophages toward IL-1alpha secretion and acquisition of LPS responsiveness. The priming activity of mfVSG toward LPS responsiveness was also demonstrated in vivo and may be relevant during trypanosome infections, since Trypanosoma brucei-infected mice became gradually LPS-hypersensitive during the course of infection. Collectively, the VSG of trypanosomes encompasses two distinct macrophage-activating components: while the GIP moiety of sVSG mediates TNF-alpha induction, the DMG compound of the mfVSG anchor contributes to IL-1 alpha induction and LPS sensitization.     

The dynamics of reciprocal sibling interaction: Are context and maternal behaviour important?

Dyadic behaviors characterizing sibling exchanges, symmetry of dyadic styles and the influence of context (degree of task structure and maternal absence or presence) on sibling interaction were investigated. Additionally, associations between maternal interaction styles and the affective quality of the sibling relationship were examined. Twenty-six sibling pairs and their mothers participated in 3 play sessions. First born siblings were aged 5.3–7.1 yrs and second born siblings were aged 3.2–3.8 yrs. Findings reveal reciprocity within dyads for cooperative and rivalrous behaviors. Balanced and unbalanced patterns of sibling interaction were identified. Task structure did not influence sibling interaction (holding maternal presence constant). Maternal presence or absence was associated with a quantitative and qualitative change in sibling interaction. Maternal styles (attentive responsiveness, active engagement, praise) were differentially related to the quality of the sibling interaction in maternal presence versus absence. The sibling dyad is discussed as an important context for learning about the dynamics of social relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Mothers and Toddlers Program: Preliminary findings from an attachment-based parenting intervention for substance-abusing mothers.

The authors examined pilot data from an attachment-based parenting intervention for substance-abusing mothers of toddlers (ages 12-36 months). The Mothers and Toddlers Program (MTP) is a 20-week individual therapy intervention that aims to help mothers develop more balanced representations of their children and improve their capacity for reflective functioning (i.e., recognition of the intentional nature of children's behavior). The authors hypothesized that improvement in maternal representational balance and maternal capacity for reflective functioning would correspond with improvements in maternal behavior with toddlers (e.g., sensitivity to cues, responsiveness to distress, and social-emotional growth fostering) and reduction in maternal psychiatric distress and substance abuse. Eight mothers who completed MTP showed moderate improvements in representational balance and reflective functioning, and these changes corresponded with significant improvements in maternal behaviors with toddlers. The authors also compared MTP completers and noncompleters on sociodemographic and psychosocial indexes and examined the validity of the intervention's proposed mechanisms of change. Preliminary findings support the importance of attachment mechanisms and indicate that attachment-based interventions may strengthen substance-abusing mothers' capacities to foster their toddlers' socioemotional development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental precursors of externalizing behavior: Ages 1 to 3.

Despite previous research indicating that early negative child behavior and the quality of the parent–child relationship are predictive of later externalizing problems, few investigators have attempted to trace these antecedents back to infancy. In a sample of 100 infants (59 boys and 41 girls) from low-income families, it was possible to identify developmental sequences leading from infant persistence and lack of maternal responsiveness to later child disruptive, aggressive child behavior at ages 2 and 3 yrs. Gender differences were found with respect to the range and type of variables that showed continuity in predicting disruptive behavior. For boys, salient predictors of age 2 and age 3 externalizing behavior were maternal unresponsiveness, infant attention-seeking, aggression, and noncompliance, whereas for girls, infant noncompliance was related to both age 3 externalizing and internalizing problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age and sex differences in behaviors mediated by the ventromedial hypothalamus.

Studied 28 male and 28 female Wistar rats. Circadian rhythm, emotionality, and taste responsiveness (except for responsiveness to quinine adulteration) were found to shift, in 1 or both sexes, toward a pattern suggesting decreased ventromedial hypothalamic (VMH) functioning with increasing age. A post hoc analysis of the configuration of positive and negative results suggests that, for those behaviors known to show both immediate and sustained effects of VMH lesion, male Ss showed a marked trend toward the lesioned pattern of behavior with increasing age, whereas females showed weaker or nonexistent age trends in the same behaviors. For those behaviors that changed only during the static, obese phase, or for which data are controversial as to whether changes took place as a result of the VMH lesion at all, this age and sex pattern did not emerge. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of normal mice from metaphase I oocytes fertilized with primary spermatocytes

Primary spermatocytes are the male germ cells before meiosis I. To examine whether these 4n diploid cells are genetically competent to fertilize oocytes and support full embryo development, we introduced the nuclei of pachytene/diplotene spermatocytes into oocytes that were arrested in prophase I (germinal vesicle stage), metaphase I, or metaphase II (Met II). Both the paternal and maternal chromosomes then were allowed to undergo meiosis synchronously until Met II. In the first and second groups, the paternal and maternal chromosomes had intermingled to form a large Met II plate, which was then transferred into a fresh enucleated Met II oocyte. In the third group, the paternal Met II chromosomes were obtained by transferring spermatocyte nuclei into Met II oocytes twice. After activation of the Met II oocytes that were produced, those microfertilized at metaphase I showed the best developmental ability in vitro, and three of these embryos developed into full-term offspring after embryo transfer. Two pups (one male and one female) were proven to be fertile. This finding provides direct evidence that the nuclei of male germ cells acquire the ability to fertilize oocytes before the first meiotic division.     

Cultural and educational variations in maternal responsiveness.

Two separate studies examined the following hypotheses: (1) that maternal responsiveness is affected by cross-cultural differences in conventions of conversational interaction and (2) that maternal responsiveness is affected by intracultural differences in mothers' levels of formal education. The 1st study compared mother–infant interactions among the Gusii of Kenya with those in suburban Boston, Massachusetts. The 2nd study, carried out in the Mexican city of Cuernavaca, examined variations in mother–infant interactions by maternal schooling within a local sample of low-income mothers of similar cultural backgrounds who had attended school from 1 to 9 yrs. The 2 studies together indicate that maternal responsiveness during infancy, particularly in the verbal mode, is influenced by the mother's cultural background and school attendance (i.e., by factors that reflect her history of participation in institutionalized systems of communication and education). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers and fathers of young developmentally disabled and nondisabled boys: Adaptation and spousal support.

Assessed the extent to which the presence of a young developmentally disabled or nondisabled male child affected adaptation and family roles for both parents. Developmental child assessments, in-home ratings of parenting, and maternal and paternal self-assessments and interviews were included. Marital adjustment, disruptions in family life, and observed parenting of the child (but not depression) varied with disability status of child. Mothers in both groups reported more depressive symptoms and family disruptions than fathers. Fathers of disabled children assumed less responsibility than comparison fathers for child care, even in mother-employed families. Decreased father involvement in child care was specific to the disabled child, not to siblings, and was related to severity of the child's atypical behaviors. Expressive support from one's spouse was the best predictor of quality of parenting for both mothers and fathers of disabled and nondisabled sons. Disharmony between current and "appropriate" spousal support was a significant negative predictor of perceived and observed parental adaptation. The concept of harmonic responsiveness was proposed to explain how proffered support must be tuned to the perceived needs and expectations of one's spouse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of angiotensin II and 5-hydroxytryptamine on the vessels of the human foetal cotyledon

1 The actions of angiotensin II (AT II) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) on the vessels of the human isolated, perfused, cotyledon were examined in vitro. 1 The cotyledonary vessels were shown to respond to both AT II and 5-HT over the range 10(-8) to (10(-4) M. 3 The preparation was found to be more responsive to AT II than 5-HT. 4 The findings confirm that the responsiveness of the cotyledonary vessels differs from the vessels of the umbilical cord, and that this behaviour does not depend upon the integrity of the endothelium associated with these vessels.