The teaching of psychology and the psychology we teach.

"Does the psychology we teach deserve its present place in the liberal arts curriculum? Have we the moral right to ask our students to spend their time learning the stuff we teach as psychology?" Each subject in the curriculum should be evaluated against criteria such as its contribution to: (1) transmission of significant components of our culture, (2) elicitation of and challange to thought and action, (3) growth of the individual as a person, and (4) preparation for a career. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prevalence of and risk factors for suicide attempts versus suicide gestures: Analysis of the National Comorbidity Survey.

Definitions and classification schemes for suicide attempts vary widely among studies, introducing conceptual, methodological, and clinical problems. We tested the importance of the intent to die criterion by comparing self-injurers with intent to die, suicide attempters, and those who self-injured not to die but to communicate with others, suicide gesturers, using data from the National Comorbidity Survey (n = 5,877). Suicide attempters (prevalence = 2.7%) differed from suicide gesturers (prevalence = 1.9%) and were characterized by male gender, fewer years of education, residence in the southern and western United States; psychiatric diagnoses including depressive, impulsive, and aggressive symptoms; comorbidity; and history of multiple physical and sexual assaults. It is possible and useful to distinguish between self-injurers on the basis of intent to die. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From children's hands to adults' ears: Gesture's role in the learning process.

Children can express thoughts in gesture that they do not express in speech--they produce gesture-speech mismatches. Moreover, children who produce mismatches on a given task are particularly ready to learn that task. Gesture, then, is a tool that researchers can use to predict who will profit from instruction. But is gesture also useful to adults who must decide how to instruct a particular child? We asked 8 adults to instruct 38 third- and fourth-grade children individually in a math problem. We found that the adults offered more variable instruction to children who produced mismatches than to children who produced no mismatches--more different types of instructional strategies and more instructions that contained two different strategies, one in speech and the other in gesture. The children thus appeared to be shaping their own learning environments just by moving their hands. Gesture not only reflects a child's understanding but can play a role in eliciting input that could shape that understanding. As such, it may be part of the mechanism of cognitive change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implementing reciprocal teaching in the classroom: Overcoming obstacles and making modifications.

The purpose of this qualitative study was to investigate teachers' implementation and practice of reciprocal teaching (RT) in 2 elementary schools. Over a 3-year period, 17 elementary school teachers participated in the implementation of RT. The obstacles they encountered and modifications made to RT were examined in vivo. Teachers modified their practice of RT, and the authors examined their modifications using 3 elements of RT: strategy use, dialogue, and scaffolded instruction. The focus was on whether these 3 essential elements remained in the teachers' constructions of RT. The authors also focused on whether teachers added anything new to RT. Theory and guidelines that can be used to help teachers with the implementation and practice of RT are developed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children: A 1-year follow-up.

A follow-up of a study evaluating a program to teach young children about phonemic structure is reported. In the original study (B. Byrne and R. Fielding-Barnsley; see record 1992-10755-001), preschoolers were trained with the program for 12 wks and gained in phonemic awareness and knowledge of the alphabetic principle as compared with a control group. The children were retested at the end of kindergarten on phonemic awareness, word identification, decoding, and spelling. Children who entered school with advanced levels of phonemic awareness scored significantly higher on each of the measures. Alphabetic knowledge predicted literacy development, but phonemic awareness accounted for significant additional variance in decoding and spelling. Verbal intelligence did not influence reading and spelling performance. Other parts of the data led to the conclusion that some aspects of phonemic awareness may be a consequence of literacy instruction rather than a cause. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dyadic drumming across the lifespan reveals a zone of proximal development in children.

Many social interactions require the synchronization—be it automatically or intentionally—of one's own behavior with that of others. Using a dyadic drumming paradigm, the authors delineate lifespan differences in interpersonal action synchronization (IAS). Younger children, older children, younger adults, and older adults in same- and mixed-age dyads were instructed to drum in synchrony with their interaction partner at a constant, self-chosen tempo. Adult-only dyads showed the highest and children-only the lowest levels of IAS accuracy. It is important to note that children improved reliably in IAS accuracy when paired with older partners. The observed age-related differences in IAS accuracy remained reliable after statistically controlling for individual differences in the ability to synchronize to a metronome and for between-dyad differences in tempo. The authors conclude that IAS improves from middle childhood to adulthood and that adult interaction partners may facilitate its development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fathers and children: Predicting the quality and quantity of fathering.

This study looked at the quality and quantity of interactions between fathers and their firstborn 5-year-olds from the perspective of the family as a developmental interdependent system. The goals were to identify predictors of men's parenting from men's own adaptation (direct effects) and from their wives' characteristics (indirect effects), both measured during the expectancy. Twenty-three families from the Boston University Pregnancy and Parenthood Project made up the sample. Measures included self-report scales, observations, and semistructured interviews. Several of men's psychological characteristics, particularly their autonomy and job satisfaction, predicted their play time and the quality of their interactions with their children. Women's autonomy, occupation, and age in the expectancy predicted men's caretaking and weekday time involvement with their 5-year-olds. We suggest that the findings can best be explained by the concepts of complementarity and identification. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using the Feedback Theory of Action to Reshape the Freedom-Determinism Controversy: Comment.

Comments on the article by Ludwig Immergluck (see record 1965-00034-001), which discusses the issue of determinism versus freedom of action. The key issue in the deterministic argument presented by Immergluck appears to lie in the ability to predict human actions. The commentator mentions other scholars and their theories and suggests that one cannot infer that concrete phenomena such as human action are fundamentally deterministic because scientific formulations are deterministic. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Canadian perspective on using vignettes to teach ethics in psychology.

Vignettes depicting ethical dilemmas are used widely in teaching and learning professional ethics. Such an approach can facilitate learning by allowing opportunities to work through ethical dilemmas using practical, realistic, and complex material that enables participants to: engage in discussion; explore applicable ethical principles; and ideally, to achieve a deeper level of ethical understanding. Despite their widespread use, little research has been conducted on how to maximise the benefits of using ethical dilemmas, nor on the most ethically appropriate ways of presenting scenarios derived, at least in part, from actual occurrences. In this article, we endeavour to contextualise the use of vignettes within the framework provided by the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists, Third Edition (Canadian Psychological Association, 2000) and to use the principles and standards therein to suggest guidelines for the ethical creation and use of vignettes. We begin by reviewing the literature on the use of ethical dilemmas in teaching and learning ethics, including a discussion of the benefits to be gained from using vignettes as one component of a comprehensive approach to ethics education. This is followed by discussion of ethical considerations relevant to the creation and use of vignettes of ethical dilemmas. We conclude with a series of recommendations informed by the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists to guide psychologists in using such illustrative material in an ethically appropriate manner. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The control of instrumental action following outcome devaluation in young children aged between 1 and 4 years.

To determine the role of action-outcome learning in the control of young children's instrumental behavior, the authors trained 18- to 48-month-olds to manipulate visual icons on a touch-sensitive display to obtain different types of video clips as outcomes. Subsequently, one of the outcomes was devalued by repeated exposure, and children's propensity to perform the trained actions was tested in extinction. On test, children with a mean age greater than 2.5 years performed the action trained with the devalued outcome less than those trained with the still-valued outcome, thereby demonstrating that their actions were mediated by action-outcome learning. By contrast, the instrumental responses of younger children (mean age     

A comparative study of conventional instruction and individual programed instruction in the college classroom.

The traditional college classroom teaching method of lecture and assigned readings was compared with an individual programed instructional method utilizing a programed text. 21 pairs of Ss, matched according to sex, age, intelligence test score, and hours of formal training in the biological sciences, were 1st tested upon completion of the physiological portion of an introductory psychology course. They were then retested 6 wk. later. No significant differences were found in performance on Test 1. However, the level of performance on Test 2 was significantly higher for the program-instructed group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Applying the science of learning: Evidence-based principles for the design of multimedia instruction.

During the last 100 years, a major accomplishment of psychology has been the development of a science of learning aimed at understanding how people learn. In attempting to apply the science of learning, a central challenge of psychology and education is the development of a science of instruction aimed at understanding how to present material in ways that help people learn. The author provides an overview of how the design of multimedia instruction can be informed by the science of learning and the science of instruction, which yields 10 principles of multimedia instructional design that are grounded in theory and based on evidence. Overall, the relationship between the science of learning and the science of instruction is reciprocal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Computer-based learning of neuroanatomy: A longitudinal study of learning, transfer, and retention.

A longitudinal experiment was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of new methods for learning neuroanatomy with computer-based instruction. Using a three-dimensional graphical model of the human brain and sections derived from the model, tools for exploring neuroanatomy were developed to encourage adaptive exploration. This is an instructional method that incorporates graphical exploration in the context of repeated testing and feedback. With this approach, 72 participants learned either sectional anatomy alone or whole anatomy followed by sectional anatomy. Sectional anatomy was explored either with perceptually continuous navigation through the sections or with discrete navigation (as in the use of an anatomical atlas). Learning was measured longitudinally to a high performance criterion. Subsequent tests examined transfer of learning to the interpretation of biomedical images and long-term retention. There were several clear results of this study. On initial exposure to neuroanatomy, whole anatomy was learned more efficiently than sectional anatomy. After whole anatomy was mastered, learners demonstrated high levels of transfer of learning to sectional anatomy and from sectional anatomy to the interpretation of complex biomedical images. Learning whole anatomy prior to learning sectional anatomy led to substantially fewer errors overall than learning sectional anatomy alone. Use of continuous or discrete navigation through sectional anatomy made little difference to measured outcomes. Efficient learning, good long-term retention, and successful transfer to the interpretation of biomedical images indicated that computer-based learning using adaptive exploration can be a valuable tool in instruction of neuroanatomy and similar disciplines. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preferred strategies for learning ethics in the practice of a discipline.

There are very few formal evaluations of the impact of instructional practices on the effectiveness of strategies for learning professional ethics. The assessment of ethical knowledge and skills is important in current discussions of professional mobility across North American jurisdictions. The present study investigated adult learners' perceived level of helpfulness of 7 strategies when learning 7 different ethical content areas. Adult learners rated interactive strategies as more helpful for learning compared to traditional didactic methods. Adult learners rated the helpfulness of various strategies differently for different content areas, indicating that several strategies may be useful. We conclude by making recommendations for further investigation of the effectiveness of various learning strategies in terms of knowledge gained and subsequent behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Frontiers of current research: Section introduction.

This article introduces the special section in the current issue of the American Psychologist. The articles in this section appear in two groups. The first is titled "Developmental Perspectives"; the second is titled "Learning and Teaching." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Brief report: a longitudinal examination of the communicative gestures deficit in young children with autism

OBJECTIVES: To provide Canadian physicians with a standard definition of hypertension in pregnancy, recommendations for laboratory investigations and tests for the assessment and management of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy, and a classification of such disorders. OPTIONS: To improve or not improve Canadian uniformity and standardization in the investigation and classification of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. OUTCOMES: 1) Accuracy, reliability and practicality of diagnostic clinical criteria for hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. 2) Laboratory tests useful to determine severity and prognosis of disorders as measured by maternal and neonatal adverse outcomes. 3) A classification of disorders for use by Canadian physicians to facilitate uniformity and diffusion of research through a common language. EVIDENCE: Articles on hypertensive disorders in pregnancy published from 1966 to 1996, retrieved through MEDLINE search, related to definitions, tests, diagnostic criteria and classification, as well as documents on diagnosis and classification from authorities in the United States, Europe and Australia and from special interest groups. VALUES: High priority was given to the principle of preventing adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes through the provision of diagnostic criteria for severity and prognosis and through dissemination of reliable and pertinent information and research results using a common language. BENEFITS, HARMS AND COST: Higher degree of vigilance in diagnosing hypertensive disorders in pregnancy, allowing for earlier assessment and intervention, and more efficient dissemination of comparative information through common language. No harm or added cost is perceived at this time. RECOMMENDATIONS: (1) A diastolic blood pressure of 90 mm Hg or more should be the criterion for a diagnosis of hypertension in pregnancy and should trigger investigation and management. Except for very high diastolic readings (110 mm Hg or more), all diastolic readings of 90 mm Hg or more should be confirmed after 4 hours. (2) A regularly calibrated mercury sphygmomanometer, with an appropriate-sized cuff, is the instrument of choice. A rest period of 10 minutes should be allowed before taking the blood pressure. The woman should be sitting upright and the cuff positioned at the level of the heart. (3) Both Korotkoff phase IV and V sounds should be recorded, but the phase IV sound should be used for initiating clinical investigation and management. (4) A urine protein level of more than 0.3 g/d should be the criterion for a diagnosis of proteinuria; 24-hour urine collection should be the standard method for determining proteinuria. (5) Edema and weight gain should not be used as diagnostic criteria. (6) Hypertensive disorders diagnosed during pregnancy should be classified as pre-existing hypertension; gestational hypertension with or without proteinuria; pre-existing hypertension with superimposed gestational hypertension with proteinuria; and unclassifiable antenatally but final classification 42 days after delivery. VALIDATION: Except for expert opinions and reviews solicited for this project, these recommendations need to be field tested and validated in Canada. Guidelines endorsed by the Canadian Hypertension Society and the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada.     

Learning to control collisions: The role of perceptual attunement and action boundaries.

The authors investigated the role of perceptual attunement in an emergency braking task in which participants waited until the last possible moment to slam on the brakes. Effects of the size of the approached object and initial speed on the initiation of braking were used to identify the optical variables on which participants relied at various stages of practice. In Experiments 1A and 1B, size and speed effects that were present early in practice diminished but were not eliminated as participants learned to initiate braking at a rate of optical expansion that varied with optical angle. When size and speed were manipulated together in Experiment 2, the size effect was quickly eliminated, and participants learned to use a 3rd optical variable (global optic flow rate) to nearly eliminate the speed effect. The authors conclude that perceptual attunement depends on the range of practice conditions, the availability of information, and the criteria for success. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

High-tech with the human touch: Using telehealth to reach America's children.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 31(2) of Professional Psychology: Research and Practice (see record 2007-17403-001). On page 4, the last sentence of text incorrectly reads, "For additional telehealth project, policy, legal, and funding information, visit OAT's web site at http://www.telehealth.hrsa.gov." The correct web site address is http://telehealth.hrsa.gov.] In the past decade, we have seen new telecommunication and information technologies used to provide health services, health professional and consumer education, and public health and administrative services. The application of these tools to health care, commonly referred to as telehealth, provides an unprecedented opportunity, as we embark on a new millennium, to take services to those in need-to "carry the water to the desert." Telehealth provides both a means to increase access, and to reengineer the processes of care, enhancing the equality and effectiveness of health services. This article illustrates how telehealth has helped children and youth in various health care settings. Many of these projects have been initiated with federal funds from OAT or other federal agencies. Some of the projects use technologies that require special phone lines and expensive equipment ranging from $15,000 to $50,000; others run over regular phone lines and use equipment costing between $500 to $1,000. Psychologists are involved in many of these projects as initiators of services, as members of multidisciplinary teams, and as researchers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Activation of action rules in action observation.

Visually perceiving an action may activate corresponding motor programs. This automatic motor activation can occur both for higher level (i.e., the goal of an action) and for lower level (i.e., the specific effector with which it is executed) aspects of an action. The authors used a tool-use action paradigm to experimentally dissociate priming effects for observing the target, the movement, or the target-to-movement mapping of a tool-use action. In 3 experiments, participants took turns in acting, observing the tool-use action of another person in trial n-1, and executing an action in trial n. Trial transitions from n-1 to n were manipulated in 4 conditions with (a) mapping repeated and movement and target changed, (b) target repeated and movement and mapping changed, (c) movement repeated and target and mapping changed, or (d) all components repeated. Results indicate priming effects for repeating the target-to-movement mapping (i.e., the action rule) of a tool-use action and suggest that a rather abstract action schema is activated during action observation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)