Performance evaluation and intrinsic motivation: The effects of evaluative focus, rewards, and achievement orientation.

Most studies of intrinsic motivation under reward and evaluative contingencies have used social comparison criteria to evaluate subjects' performance. In those studies evaluation tended to reduce intrinsic interest. This study contrasted normative evaluation against a more task-focused evaluation of subjects' performance on an interesting word game and examined the role of achievement motivation in moderating reactions to performance evaluation. Focus differences were implemented under conditions of performance-contingent reward, anticipated evaluation, and control conditions in which subjects received performance feedback at task conclusion. We predicted that evaluation would reduce interest relative to reward and feedback control groups under a normative focus but not under a task focus and also that a process of competence valuation (Harackiewicz & Manderlink, 1984) would mediate the effects of reward and achievement on interest, especially in normative conditions. The data conformed to these expectations with one exception: Evaluation under a task focus increased intrinsic interest. These results were interpreted in the context of a general model that considers the separate effects of situational contingencies, personality factors, performance and motivational processes, and evaluative outcomes on intrinsic motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal setting, achievement orientation, and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis.

Investigated the interactive effects of achievement orientation and evaluative focus of assigned, task-specific goals on intrinsic motivation for an enjoyable pinball game. Regression analyses revealed that the effect of performance or mastery-focused goals on intrinsic motivation varied as a function of achievement orientation. Specifically, the provision of task-specific standards with a performance focus enhanced intrinsic motivation for achievement-oriented individuals, whereas the assignment of such goals proved deleterious to the intrinsic motivation of those low in achievement orientation. Individuals low in achievement orientation displayed the highest levels of intrinsic motivation when provided with mastery-focused goals. A similar pattern of effects was obtained on competence valuation and task involvement, both of which were additionally validated as mediators of the direct effects on intrinsic motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A question of competence: The effects of competence and task feedback on intrinsic interest.

Examined whether competence information is the feedback feature that affects intrinsic motivation and whether perceived competence is the process responsible in 2 studies in which 174 undergraduates compared competence feedback with meaningful task feedback. In Study 1, positive competence feedback and task feedback were manipulated independently. Findings indicate that although positive feedback resulted in the highest level of perceived competence, both positive and task feedback enhanced interest individually. In Study 2, an ego-involvement manipulation emphasized competence prior to task engagement. Path-analytic techniques were used to identify 2 processes that mediated the effects of positive, negative, and task feedback on interest: perceived competence and personal valuation. Results indicate that perceived competence enhanced enjoyment only when performance quality was stressed by the ego-involvement manipulation. When competence was not made salient, subsequent interest depended more on the degree the individual personally valued involvement. Both studies indicate that competence information can affect both perceived competence and personal valuation. Feeling competent itself enhanced intrinsic motivation only if attaining competence was a primary goal of the task. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Achievement goals and intrinsic motivation.

Two experiments investigated the effects of achievement goals on intrinsic motivation for an enjoyable pinball game. Exp 1 manipulated Ss' performance (demonstrating ability) and mastery (developing one's skills) achievement goals and contrasted them with a neutral control group. Exp 2 replicated Exp 1 and extended it by additionally providing (or not) Ss with positive, goal-relevant feedback. Results were consistent across studies, indicating that individual differences in achievement orientation moderated the influence of achievement goals on intrinsic motivation. Specifically, performance goals enhanced intrinsic motivation for achievement-oriented individuals, whereas mastery goals enhanced interest for those low in achievement orientation. The results were discussed in the context of J. M. Harackiewicz and C. Sansone's (1991) model of intrinsic motivation processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of instruction on intrinsic interest: The importance of context.

Examined how contextual cues influence the impact of receiving instructions for improving performance on intrinsic motivation. The authors proposed that whether instruction enhances or decreases motivation depends on the salience of performance goals. Goal salience was proposed to be a function of how an individual defines the activity, which, in turn, may be influenced by contextual features. To test this hypothesis, the authors used a computer game that emphasized fantasy in addition to skill, and they varied the presence of contextual cues highlighting performance. In Study 1, the authors varied the presence of prior performance feedback, and found that instruction decreased interest only when no prior performance feedback (positive or negative) was received. In Study 2, the authors explicitly manipulated contextual salience by describing the activity's goals as either skill- or fantasy-related. Instruction decreased interest in the fantasy-emphasis context, but increased interest in the skill-emphasis context. Furthermore, when instruction matched perceived goals Ss experienced greater positive affect while performing the task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rewarding pinball wizardry: Effects of evaluation and cue value on intrinsic interest.

Examined the effects of rewards for pinball competence on subsequent interest in the game in 3 studies with 219 Ss in which 3 components of performance-contingent reward structures—an evaluative contingency established before playing, performance feedback, and the receipt of a reward—were identified. The symbolic cue value of the reward may affect interest independently of evaluation and competence feedback. To isolate its effect, groups receiving a performance-contingent reward were compared with groups that experienced the same evaluative contingency and feedback and with feedback-only controls (Studies 1 and 3). Results show that evaluation reduced intrinsic motivation, compared with controls, whereas reward enhanced intrinsic motivation relative to evaluation. In Study 2, groups receiving rewards for attaining competence but differing in whether the evaluation was anticipated before playing were compared. Results indicate that unexpected performance-contingent rewards enhanced interest, compared with expected rewards. Findings suggest that the 3 reward properties have separate effects on intrinsic motivation. Anticipation of evaluation was responsible for negative reward effects, whereas competence feedback and due value had independent positive effects (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the relative effects of positive and negative verbal feedback on males' and females' intrinsic motivation.

Assessed the relative effects of positive and negative feedback on males' and females' intrinsic motivation and attempted to replicate findings by the present authors (see record 1984-30609-001) regarding the mediating effects of feelings of competence on the verbal feedback/intrinsic motivation relation. 30 male and 30 female undergraduates performed an interesting task and received either positive or negative feedback relative to their performance. Ss then filled out intrinsic motivation and feelings of competence scales. Results show that, relative to negative feedback, positive feedback led to higher levels of intrinsic motivation and competence feelings for both males and females. Results of the path analysis involving verbal feedback, competence feelings, and intrinsic motivation revealed a picture clearly in line with a mediating model. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-enhancing and self-defeating ego orientation: Relations with task and avoidance orientation, achievement, self-perceptions, and anxiety.

Recent research in motivation has identified 2 main goal orientations: task orientation and ego orientation. Two studies of 6th- and 8th-grade Norwegian students tested the prediction that there are different dimensions of ego orientation (self-defeating and self-enhancing), that they may be separated from other goal orientations, and that they relate differently to academic achievement, self-concept, self-efficacy, self-esteem, anxiety, and intrinsic motivation. Results from both studies supported the predictions. The correlation between self-defeating and self-enhancing ego orientation was small, and these constructs had different relations to other variables in the study. Self-defeating ego orientation was associated with high anxiety and was negatively related to achievement and self-perceptions. Self-enhancing ego orientation was positively related to achievement, self-perceptions, and intrinsic motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance and motivational deficits of helplessness: The role of motivational orientations.

Examined the hypothesis that the effect of failure feedback in producing learned helplessness would depend on the motivational orientation of a child. 53 4th–6th graders completed a scale of intrinsic vs extrinsic orientation in the classroom and were randomly assigned to success, failure, or control conditions, with the restriction that an approximately equal number of Ss with different motivational orientations were assigned to the different conditions. Extrinsically motivated Ss were predicted to exhibit performance decrement following a failure experience, whereas the opposite was predicted for intrinsically motivated Ss. Success feedback was predicted to enhance subsequent performance only for the intrinsic group. Following success, failure, or no feedback on an activity reflecting spatial skills (an incomplete picture task), Ss' performance on an activity tapping different skills (i.e., anagrams) provided by a 2nd experimenter served as the primary measure of helplessness. Ss' intrinsic motivation in performing the incomplete picture task, a similar task (embedded figures) and a dissimilar task (dots-to-dots) was also examined. Results support the predictions on both performance and intrinsic motivation measures. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of cooperation and shared feedback on spelling achievement.

A number of studies on cooperative teaching have shown favorable effects on academic achievement. This may be due to better information processing: Low achievers get more explanation, and high achievers have to verbalize the explanation. It may also be due to students' motivation: Students exert peer pressure for better performance. In a field experiment among third-grade students, traditional spelling instruction was compared with two different forms of cooperative classroom instruction, one with individual feedback and one with shared feedback. Cooperative methods had positive effects on spelling achievement and on students' effort as rated by their teachers. Shared feedback did not produce better spelling than did individual feedback. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Achievement-Based Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation: A Test of Cognitive Mediators.

This study assessed how rewards impacted intrinsic motivation when students were rewarded for achievement while learning an activity, for performing at a specific level on a test, or for both. Undergraduate university students engaged in a problem-solving activity. The design was a 2 × 2 factorial with 2 levels of reward in a learning phase (reward for achievement, no reward) and 2 levels of reward in a test phase (reward for achievement, no reward). Intrinsic motivation was measured as time spent on the experimental task and ratings of task interest during a free-choice period. A major finding was that achievement-based rewards during learning or testing increased participants' intrinsic motivation. A path analysis indicated that 2 processes (perceived competence and interest-internal attribution) mediated the positive effects of achievement-based rewards in learning and testing on intrinsic motivation. Findings are discussed in terms of the cognitive evaluation, attribution, and social-cognitive theories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of no feedback, task-related comments, and grades on intrinsic motivation and performance.

Tested the hypothesis that intrinsic motivation would be maintained after receipt of nonthreatening, task-related evaluation and undermined after repeated nonreceipt of feedback or receipt of controlling normative grades. Nine classes comprising 261 6th-grade pupils were randomly assigned to 1 of these 3 feedback conditions and were given 2 interesting tasks, 1 quantitative and 1 qualitative, on 3 sessions over 2 days. The manipulation was applied after Sessions 1 and 2, and no feedback was expected or received after Session 3. Experimental measures consisted of Session 3 performance scores and of the results of a questionnaire, given after Session 3, that tapped interest and patterns of attribution of success and effort. Results confirm the hypothesis and show significant group differences in intrinsic motivation as reflected in both performance and attitudes. It is suggested that intrinsic motivation is not merely a function of collative stimulus properties but depends on the dynamic interaction between the stimulus and the individual (i.e., on the degree to which a task continues to be perceived as challenging and as providing satisfying increments in one's knowledge about one's competence. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Proximal versus distal goal setting and intrinsic motivation.

A. Bandura and D. H. Schunk (see record 1982-07527-001) demonstrated that proximal goal setting can develop self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation from previously low levels. The present study examined the effect of goal proximity on intrinsic motivation when initial task interest was high. 66 female undergraduates were assigned either proximal or distal performance goals, or were not provided with goals, prior to completing a series of enjoyable word puzzles. Distal goal setting enhanced subsequent intrinsic motivation relative to conditions involving proximal goals or no goals. Proximal goal setting, however, produced more positive goal attainment expectations over the course of task engagement and enhanced final perceptions of performance quality to a lesser degree. Findings are interpreted according to E. L. Deci's (1975) cognitive evaluation theory of intrinsic motivation. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancy–value relationships of shame reactions and shame resiliency.

This study investigated expectancy–value predictors for experiencing shame from test feedback and the possible consequences of these shame reactions. Those who experienced shame included a broader range of students than previously thought, including some high achievers who had high self-perceptions of competence. Main expectancy–value predictors of shame were lower self-efficacy ratings and higher intrinsic as well as extrinsic goal orientations. Also, although having important future goals for which the course had instrumental value was not predictive of inducing shame, such goals appeared to exert influence on whether a person would be resilient from a shame reaction with increased motivation, motivated behavior, and higher academic exam scores. If students believe they have the capabilities and are committed to a clear future goal for which the course grade or course information is relevant, then a shame reaction may be a warning signal that current actions are not in line with future goal attainment. For these students, a personal evaluation of goal commitment may result in increased motivated behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal orientation and task demand effects on motivation, affect, and performance.

Two studies tested the joint effects of goal orientation and task demands on motivation, affect, and performance, examining different factors affecting task demands. In Study 1 (N?=?199), task difficulty was found to moderate the effect of goal orientation on performance and affect (i.e., satisfaction with performance). In Study 2 (N?≠&189), task consistency was found to moderate the effect of goal orientation on self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. Results are discussed in relation to self-regulatory processes cued by goal orientations, attentional resource demands, and the need to match goal orientations to the nature of the task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Managing motivation: The impact of supervisor feedback on subordinate task interest.

Examined with 64 male and 48 female undergraduates the determinants and consequences of the performance feedback given in an experimentally created supervisor–subordinate work relationship. Subordinates worked on a series of hidden-figure puzzles and received periodic performance feedback from their supervisors. Two dimensions of the supervisors' feedback were assessed: (1) the amount of competence information it contained and (2) the degree to which it was given in a controlling manner. Two situational variables hypothesized to affect these feedback dimensions were manipulated: (1) whether or not the supervisors administered rewards for good performance to their subordinates and (2) whether or not the supervisors were themselves rewarded for maintaining their subordinates' task enjoyment. The impact of the supervisors' feedback on the subordinates' self-perceived competence and task enjoyment was also assessed. A path analytic process analysis revealed that both feedback dimensions were affected by the manipulated situational variables and that both dimensions were in turn related to the subordinates' self-perceived competence. However, the controlling behavior was positively related to self-perceived competence only in the subordinate not rewarded conditions, suggesting an important boundary restriction. The subordinates' self-perceived competence was the sole factor directly related to their task enjoyment. Results are interpreted in terms of theories of intrinsic motivation. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ability attribution as a result of variable effort and achievement motivation.

Required 96 community college students to work on 2 tasks with high or low effort and with feedback that indicated successful or average performances on each task. A predicted 3-way interaction showed that high-need achievers (indicated by scores on the Revised and Condensed Achievement Scale) increased judgments of their abilities in response to effortful task success, whereas low-need achievers increased their ability judgments following less effortful success. Both results were confirmed in a multiple correlation analysis of ability attribution. Implications for theory development on achievement motivation are discussed. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teacher perceptions and student reading motivation.

Teacher perceptions of students' intrinsic motivation for reading were examined from the perspective of self-determination development and reading achievement. A sample of 68 teachers from randomly selected elementary schools that were representative of county characteristics rated 374 students on 6 aspects of motivation for reading, including individual, topical, activity-based, autonomy-supported, socially supported, and writing-related aspects. Quantitative and qualitative results showed that teachers perceived higher achievers to be relatively higher in intrinsic reading motivation (individual and topical) than in extrinsic reading motivation (activity-based and autonomy-supported). In contrast, teachers perceived lower achievers to be relatively more motivated by extrinsic contextual factors than by intrinsic factors. Teachers appear to possess implicit theories that are in accord with the self-determination perspective on the development of motivation and reading achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Additivity versus nonadditivity of intrinsic and extrinsic incentives: Implications for work motivation, performance, and attitudes.

80 male Ss were randomly assigned to either an intrinsically appealing or an intrinsically nonappealing assembly task. Half of the Ss were paid according to a highly salient, continuous, contingent reward schedule, while the other half were paid according to an extremely noncontingent payment schedule. Thus, 20 Ss worked for both intrinsic and extrinsic incentives, 20 for extrinsic only, 20 for intrinsic only, and 20 for minimal incentives of either type. Data on 4 dependent variables (performance, intrinsic motivation, orientation toward the task, and intrinsic satisfaction) provided convergent support for E. L. Deci's (see record 1968-02190-001) hypothesis that intrinsic and extrinsic incentives are not additive in determining attitudes and behavior. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation.

A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation was proposed and tested in a college classroom with 178 undergraduates. Mastery, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals were assessed and their antecedents and consequences examined. Results indicated that mastery goals were grounded in achievement motivation and high competence expectancies; performance-avoidance goals, in fear of failure and low competence expectancies; and performance-approach goals, in achievement motivation, fear of failure, and high competence expectancies. Mastery goals facilitated intrinsic motivation, performance-approach goals enhanced graded performance, and performance-avoidance goals proved inimical to both intrinsic motivation and graded performance. The proposed model represents an integration of classic and contemporary approaches to the study of achievement motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)